#307 b.c. | Explore Tumblr Posts and Blogs

amontaemadt · 2 years

Text

Social Media Market Brief

Social Media Research Brief

Abraham Trujillo, Alexis Hurley, Amontae Gaines, Francisco Gonzalez-Hernandez

MADT 307

Professor Jennifer Meadows

March 11,2022

Define the Field

As far back as the first cultures among human life, there are records of health care. In early China 1000 B.C. to 3000 B.C., one major key to health care was physical exercise. Even then it was known that by completing a form of exercise once a day, you would live a better, longer life. In different ancient cultures, as in Africa, it was among the most important that people, especially men, had the flexibility and endurance to withhold tribal rituals along with hunting and/or gathering. In ancient times it was known and seen as important to keep up with physical activity for one’s health (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.)).

Fast forward to the 1980s, fitness in America was at an all time high. This decade started the physical health “craze.” Money was being thrown into many different fitness businesses everywhere, an example of that would be fitness centers, A.K.A. a gym. Money was beginning to be invested in different health areas everywhere (CBC/Radio Canada. (n.d.)).

Today, with the growth of technology, it has only been easier to keep track of one’s physical fitness. There are many different devices that can keep track of heart rate, steps, calories, and more. One of the main ways people can see their physical information is through their smartphone. With the invention of smartphones came social media apps.

Social media refers to technology-based apps that give individuals an outlet to express ideas, thoughts, and information through virtual networks and communities.

These apps became a way to connect with one another. Social media soon was growing in the realm of fitness. At first, you could take your phone out running with you and your app would track the physical activities you were doing. It soon upgraded to being able to add a profile picture, then starting to see other’s profiles, and comparing what you are doing to theirs. Today, many people have these social media fitness apps that help keep them on track with health, while seeing if their friends are too.

How it’s Used

Social media in its simplest form is used to connect users. As social media platforms started becoming a bigger part of our everyday life, its utilization has begun to vary depending on the user or entity behind the screen.

To the average person, social media is a place to find entertainment and a form of communication. According to the Pew Research Center, approximately seven out of ten Americans use social media in their everyday lives to create and grow connections, engage with news outlets, share information and to seek entertainment.

On the other hand, brands and businesses mainly utilize social media to connect to large audiences. Nowadays, more and more businesses are investing more into social media as a form of marketing and advertising for their products and services. In the Forbes interview between Gary Drenik, CEO of Prosper Business Development, and Jamie Gilpin, Chief Marketing Officer of Sprout Social, Gilpin states that “over the past year, more than half of consumers say their use of social media has grown.” It is also mentioned that approximately 43% of social media users utilize social media to find new brands, 36% make purchases through social media, and 33% use social media to quickly recommend brands, businesses or services to friends and family.

Individuals who hold a lot of influence within society can also use social media to their advantage to grow their own brand, advertise their own products, or sponsor other brands or businesses to a more targeted audience. Alyssa Mertes gives examples on specific individuals with a lot of influence over large audiences and the way they utilize social media, such as the actress Jessica Alba, who founded The Honest Company, a company specializing in household products. With already a large following behind them, Alba was able to easily spread the word of all The Honest Company had to offer.

Most social media sites have little to no charge to use their platform. So how do social media sites like Facebook use their own platform to bring in money if they hardly charge their millions and millions of users anything? Kamil Franek, a business analytics professional, discusses how social media giants like Facebook have a business model that allows them to create a free-to-use platform to gain as many users as possible and then make money “by auctioning off spaces for ads.” According to Franek, “advertising represented 98% of Facebook’s $86bn revenue in 2020.” It is not just the selling of advertisement spots that is important here, but the selling of data so that the companies advertising can target specific individuals who might be interested in their products or services. Franek mentions that Facebook has data on everything we do on its site from the people we talk to the pages we view. This information is what sites like Facebook sell to other companies so they can throw personalized advertisements our way.

Overall, social media sites are used to entertain, connect, and collect information.

Top 5 Developments

A recent development that has been seen in the field of social media recently, is the ability for social media companies to retaliate against countries. According to Andrew Hutchinson, with the recent struggle between Russia and Ukraine, Russia has decided to restrict access to Facebook and Meta has responded by prohibiting ads from Russian state media and restricting their accounts. Other sites like YouTube soon followed in restricting access to Russia and its state-owned media outlets. More and more social media platforms are restricting usage of their sites to Russia and placing labels on any related content that is uploaded to their sites to combat misinformation.

One very popular social media app is Tik Tok. Tik Tok was launched internationally in September 2017 from China. Tik Tok had a parent company named ByteDance, ByteDance purchased another social media video app called Musical.ly, and the two of them merged making Tik Tok what it is today. In just a few years, Tik Tok has more than 92 million users in the United States and is one of the most popular social media apps there is today (sal19. 2021, June 26). In early 2021, Donald Trump tried to ban Tik Tok in the U.S. due to national security concerns due to its Chinese ownership. There is a quote made by then Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, in regards to Tik Tok, that it could be “feeding data directly to the Communist party.” Tik Tok has always denied those claims. In June of 2021, an American buyer bought Tik Tok, releasing it from being banned. This situation is an example of a con with technology and social media apps (sal19. 2021, June 26). There have been many different accusations among different apps that question the security of one's personal information. How can someone truly know that they are not being monitored through their phones when unwanted?

A significant development relating to social media is app personalization, this is a method social media developers incorporate to bring a unique personalized experience to their users. Multiple apps use app personalization to keep their users engaged by feeding more content they would like which explains why no one can seem to put their phone down. Social Media operators like Instagram and Tik Tok want to hone in on their user’s data and collect information that helps reflect a more personalized experience on the app, apps like Instagram incorporate a ‘Explore’ tab which gives suggestions to photos, videos, or accounts that the user may like based off of their history and who they follow. The app Tik Tok has expanded on this formula and gets even more specific to it’s audience as their algorithm it takes into account whether the user watched a video from start to finish as well as if the viewer and the creator of whatever content they are watching are from the same country this is all shown to someone on the “For You Page.” Another, invasive to a degree, is it takes into account the user’s comments on videos. So something specific like poisonous frogs can take a majority of your “For You Page” content.

Ever since “the emergence of COVID-19 as a global pandemic has brought with it an unprecedented amount of fake news which threatens global well-being”(Apuke, Omar 2021) on social platforms. People feed off of interacting with others. The pandemic had one hard truth which is that in order for social interaction to come back to a normalcy, society had to normalize being separated from one another. According to a journal by Apuke and Omar (2021), It has been found that social media enable[s] individuals [to] share contents to gain recognition. These sites became social lifelines where more and more of daily interactions were being mediated by a screen. It was also a place to get current information regarding disease spreading locations, sites for vaccinations and other life saving information. Social media networks were also flooded with misinformation relating to COVID-19 news. A research “found that people often fail to consider the accuracy of content when deciding what to share and that people who are more intuitive or less knowledgeable about science are more likely to believe and share falsehoods” (Pennycook, McPhetres, Zhang, Lu, Rand, et al., 2020). With the increased scare of life or death, people were more reluctant to spread information believing they are contributing valid information in order to help the community. A simple tactic that some social media companies are taking to decrease the spread of misinformation is to give “subtle reminders about the concept of accuracy” when viewing content (Pennycook, McPhetres, Zhang, Lu, Rand, et al., 2020).

Even through the misinformation and toxicity of social media, there was a good that came to the social sphere. People felt like they had something they could talk about. A sense of a shared experience regardless if it was amusement based content or if it was real life events. Social media usage varied in a person by person but also a platform base as well. Some users completely cut ties, some posted less. Others used social media to bring attention to the reality of the pandemic. No matter the purpose of using social media, there was a drastic increase in user logins ever since the pandemic started.

Readily available information at one’s finger tips, is a advantage achieved by social media apps. The user can find news, information about their specific area, recommendation to their local small businesses. Social media has evolved into more than a place where people socialize but where employers and self employed individuals can boost their visibility. People have had job interviews group virtual meetings and more. It has become a primary mode of communication that will only grow larger. Social media has created a massive shift in the news and journalism industry, top news stories are broken by apps like twitter and worldwide people are engaged in topics at real time.

We will be pitching a social-fitness media app called EveryBODY. Its purpose is to cultivate a community of like minded individuals who share a passion for fitness, outdoors and social interactions. It will encompass aspects of social media with a focus for overall health and fitness of the user by creating both virtual and nonvirtual environments that are enriched in social interaction.

Ideally the app is to be cohesive and adaptable for all users regardless of shape, size, gender or disability.

Resources

CBC/Radio Canada. (n.d.). Fitness craze sweeps the nation - CBC archives. CBCnews.

Retrieved March 2, 2022, from https://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/fitness-craze-sweeps-the-nation

Apuke, O. D., & Omar, B. (2021, July 10). Ethical dilemmas in qualitative ... - journals.sagepub.com. Social media affordances and information abundance: Enabling fake news sharing during the COVID-19 health crisis. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/16094069221078731

Pew Research Center. (2022, January 11). Demographics of social media users and adoption in the United States. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/social-media/

Drenik, G. (2021, April 22). Businesses are increasing their investments in social media as

consumers use social media more than ever before – here's why. Forbes. From https://www.forbes.com/sites/garydrenik/2021/04/22/businesses-are-increasing-their-investments-in-social-media-as-consumers-use-social-media-more-than-ever-before--heres-why/?sh=10c11f617156

Mertes, A. (2021, July 14). How celebs use social media for self-promotion and Charity.

Promotional Products Blog. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from

https://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/blog/celebrity-social-media-self-promotion-charity/

Franek, K. (2021, April 4). How facebook makes money: Business model explained. KAMIL

FRANEK | Business Analytics. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from

https://www.kamilfranek.com/how-facebook-makes-money-business-model-explained/#:

~:text=Facebook%20makes%20money%20predominantly%20by,also%20payment%20fe

es%20from%20developers.

Hutchinson, A. (2022, February 27). How social platforms are responding to the crisis in

Ukraine. Social Media Today. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from

https://www.socialmediatoday.com/news/how-social-platforms-are-responding-to-the-cris

is-in-ukraine/619497/

Everdingen, T. V. (2021, November 1). These mobile apps offer a unique user experience that is

hard to beat. Taplytics. Retrieved March 3, 2022, from

https://taplytics.com/blog/app-personalization-5-best-personalized-apps/

How fitness apps have developed. ISPO.com. (2021, November 30). Retrieved March 2, 2022,

from https://www.ispo.com/en/markets/how-fitness-apps-have-developed

Newberry, C. (2022, February 12). How the TikTok algorithm works in 2022 (and how to work

with it). Social Media Marketing & Management Dashboard. Retrieved March 3, 2022,

from https://blog.hootsuite.com/tiktok-algorithm/

Pennycook G, McPhetres J, Zhang Y, Lu JG, Rand DG. Fighting COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media: Experimental Evidence for a Scalable Accuracy-Nudge Intervention. Psychol Sci. 2020 Jul;31(7):770-780. doi: 10.1177/0956797620939054. Epub 2020 Jun 30. PMID: 32603243; PMCID: PMC7366427.

Reliance on social media in today's society. Digital Marketing Blog. (2019, October 22).

Retrieved March 3, 2022, from

https://www.insegment.com/blog/reliance-on-social-media-in-todays-society/

Worb, J. (2022, January 14). How does the TikTok algorithm work? here's what you need to

know. How Does The TikTok Algorithm Work? Here's What You Need To Know. Retrieved March 3, 2022, from https://later.com/blog/tiktok-algorithm

sal19. (2021, June 26). Tiktok insiders say social media company is tightly controlled by Chinese

parent ByteDance. CNBC. Retrieved March 11, 2022, from

https://www.cnbc.com/2021/06/25/tiktok-insiders-say-chinese-parent-bytedance-in-control.html

0 notes

milanlaguersur90 · 3 years

Text

11 more people die of COVID-19 in B.C.

11 more people die of COVID-19 in B.C., as 1,692 new cases confirmed over 3 days

B.C. health officials announced1,692 new cases of COVID-19 and 11 more deaths from over the weekend, an average of 564 cases a day.

In a written statement, the provincial Health Ministry said there are currently 5,608 active cases of people infected with the novel coronavirus in B.C.

A total of 307 people are in hospital, with 156 in intensive care.

0 notes

y2s2-20182019 · 5 years

Photo

Distorted Buddhism - Identity Map

Through history timeline, Thai have practice Buddhism since 307 B.C. and have been influenced throughout Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, and Rattanakosin era, which is Bangkok today. In 21st century, people start to detached from traditional practice of Buddhism due to distorted teachings and believe that have been establish by new group of people who use advantages of religious in commercial field.

There are three groups of people in the cycle, including Guru in Buddhism, typical Buddhist, and scammer. Based on the actual believe and practices, to make or offer merit to received blessings, it should be from inside, be mindful, and follow Five Precept of Buddhism. Meditation is the most important practice that Buddhist should do as it helps meditators to have mercy, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity.

New generations misunderstand the practices and believe that money is the key to offer merit. They believed that making merit is like investment, the more they offered the more they receive blessings. They use religious as a tool to presented themselves to look good in society using social media. They tend to focus on taking photos and posted on social media to show that they went to temple and offered huge alms. There are many components that Buddhist could make merit or offer alms. Which leads to religious fraud and scammers, which include fake shrine, fake monk, and merchants.

Fake shrine promoted new belief or opposed belief from true Buddhism in order to create long-term trust. Which is a continuous scammed, where they could gained millions of money from people. While fake monk is individual monk that commonly walk through street nearby temple area for alms collecting in the morning, which is derived from traditional beliefs. Lastly, the merchant who raise price of offering elements especially to tourist group by using Thai sakyant, food and flower basket, birds and fishes, amulets and images.

#Thomas Lozada #5 Earn Chayanisa Ongarjphanchai #Phase 1.1 #Identity Map #Profession

0 notes

xmasqoo-haineke · 4 years

Text

5th century - 1879 ALCOHOL timeline (White, Kurtz, & Acker).

This first chronology spans the earliest medicalization of excessive drinking through the “discovery” of addiction in America. This discovery occurs during a period that witnessed a dramatic increase in American per capita alcohol consumption and drinking preferences (from fermented to distilled alcohol) as well as a recognition of the addictive powers of opium and morphine. We will also see in this first period the first articulation of a disease concept of alcoholism and the call for the creation of specialized medical institutions for the treatment of the inebriate. Note the early emergence of elements that will become the core of the addiction disease concept: tolerance, withdrawal, progression, loss of control, inability to abstain, and the necessity of total abstinence.

---- Early references to “drink madness” from ancient Egypt and Greece (Crothers, 1893)

5th Century BC Heroditus (fifth century BC) reference to drunkenness as a body and soul sickness

(Crothers, 1893)

4th Century BC Aristotle (384-322 BC) in comparing licentiousness to drunkenness noted that the

former was a functional disorder while the latter resulted from an organic disorder. He viewed licentiousness as permanent but drunkenness curable. (The Cyclopaedia of Temperance and Prohibition, p., 221)

1st Century AD Seneca (4 B.C.-65 A.D.) (Seneca. Epistle LXXXIII: On drunkenness. Classics

of the Alcohol Literature. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol (1942) 3:302- 307.) ̃ “the word drunken is used in two ways,-in the one case of a man who is loaded with wine and has no control over himself; in the other, of a man who is accustomed to get drunk, and is a slave to the habit...there is a great difference between a man who is drunk and a drunkard.” p. 304

̃ “drunkenness is nothing but a condition of insanity purposely assumed.” p. 306 ̃ “...the vices which liquor generated retain their power even when the liquor is gone.” p. 307

St John Chrysostom-first distinctive comparison of inebriety to other diseases. (Crothers, 1893)

1531 Classics of the Alcohol Literature: A Document of the Reformation Period on Inebriety: Sebastian Franck=s “On the Horrible Vice of Drunkenness.” Quarterly

1563

1576

1592

Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 2(2):391-395 ̃ Refers to intoxication as a “sin that has become a habit.” p. 392. ̃ Franck=s attack is on drunkenness and not on alcohol or drinking; Jellinek notes that this attitude derived from Franck=s religious view that “What God created could not be evil in itself.” p. 395

The Portuguese explorer Garcia da Orta describes opium addiction in India: “...there is a very strong desire for it among those who use it.” Early depiction of craving and compulsion. (Sonnedecker, 1962, p. 281)

German physician-botanist Leonhart Rauwolf, in describing the opium traffic among the Turks, Moors and Persians, notes of opium consumers: “if they leave off somewhat taking it, so that then they feel physically ill.” Early description of narcotic withdrawal. (Sonnedecker, 1962, p. 280)

Classics of the Alcohol Literature: The Observations of the Elizabethan Writer Thomas Nash on Drunkenness. (1943). Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 4(3): 462-469. ̃ Nash=s pened thoughts on “The Eight Kinds of Drunkennesse.”

̃ “All these species, and more, I haue seene practised in one Company at one sitting, when I have beene permitted to remaine sober amongst them...” ̃ NOTE: E.M. Jellinek, who introduced and summarized Nash’s work in the above Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol article, later uses Nash’s term “species” in his own work to separate those types of alcohol problems that warrant designation as a disease.

H. van Linschoten of Holland describes opium use in India: “He that is used to eating it, must eat it daily, otherwise he dies and consumes himself...he that has never eaten it, and will venture to at first to eat as much as those who daily use it, will surely kill him: for I certainly believe it is a kinde of poison.” Early depiction of tolerance. (Sonnedecker, 1962, p. 280)

“...the modern conception of alcohol addiction dates not from the late eighteenth century but from the early seventeenth century at the very least. It is in the religious oratory of Stuart England that we find the key components of the idea that habitual drunkenness constitutes a progressive disease, the chief symptom of which is a loss of control over drinking behavior.” (Warner, 1993)

English Clergyman John Downame refers to drunkards “who addict themselves to this vice.” (Quoted in Warner, 1993, p. 687)

Ward, S. (1622). Woe to Drunkards. London: A Mathewes. ̃ English clergyman refers to drunkard’s “disease” (Cited in Warner, 1993, p. 688)

1592

17th Century

1609 1622

1655 Physician Acosta (Portugal) notes difficulties experienced by those trying to discontinue opium use--early anticipation of concept of addiction.

1673 Increase Mather, minister of the Old North Church, in his sermon, “Woe to Drunkards” declares: “Drink in itself is a good creature of God...and to be received with thankfulness, but the abuse of drink is from Satan; the wine is from God, but the drunkard is from the Devil.” (Lender, 1973, p. 353)

1675 English minister Richard Garbutt describes tolerance and progression: ̃ “The greatest Drunkard, what commonly was he at first, but only a frequent needless Drinker? At first he did but sip it, and afterwards he turned to sup, and now he swoops it.” (Quoted in Warner, 1993, p. 687)

1680 Scrivener, M. (1680). A Treatise against Drunkenness: Described in its Natures, Kindes, Effects and Causes, Especially that of Drinking of Healths. London: Printed for Charles Brown. ̃ Refers to England’s “Epidemical Disease of Drunkenness” (Cited in Warner, 1993, p. 688)

1682 Stockton, O. (1682). A Warning to Drunkards Delivered in Several Sermons to a Congregation in Colchester upon the Occasion of a Sad Providence towards a Young Man, Dying in the Act of Drunkenness. London: J.R. English clergyman Owen Stockton’s Warning to Drunkards posthumously published:

̃ “Drunkenness is an enticing, bewitching sin, which is very hardly left by those addicted to it.” (Quoted in Warner, 1993, p. 687)

1700 In The Mysteries of Opium Reveal’d, English physician John Jones describes the opiate withdrawal syndrome and dependence, saying that “the effects of sudden leaving off the uses of opium after a long and lavish use therefore [were] great and even intolerable distresses, anxieties and depressions of spirit, which commonly end in a most miserable death, attended with strange agonies, unless men return to the use of opium; which soon raises them again, and certainly restores them.” (Acker) Jones concluded his depiction of addiction with the observation that “the mischief is not really in the drug but in people,” but does note that the addict eventually loses volitional control of his habit. (Sonnedecker, 1962, p. 283-284)

1747 French philosopher Condillac refers to inebriety as a disease and calls for state sponsored treatment. (Crothers, 1893)

1772 Benjamin Rush calls for the abandonment of distilled spirits and the substitution of cider, beer, wine and non-alcoholic drinks in his “Sermons to Gentlemen Upon Temperance and Exercise.” (Wilkerson, 1966, p. 42)

1774

Anthony Benezet’s Mighty Destroyer Displayed is published. Includes what is perhaps the first American reference to alcohol addiction: “The unhappy dram- drinkers are so absolutely bound in slavery to these infernal spirits, that they seem to have lost the power of delivering themselves from this worst of bondages.”

̃ Notes progression: “Drops beget drams, and drams beget more drams, till they become to be without weight or measure.” ̃ Refers to alcohol as a “bewitching poison.” ̃ Refers to “grievous abuse of rum,” the “abuse of spiritous liquors,” and “people may abuse themselves thro’ excess.” (Benezet, 1774)

Benjamin Rush (1746-1813). Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits on the Human Mind and Body is published. Reprinted in Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 4:321-341 (1943). ̃ Rush refers to intemperance as “this odious disease...” (p. 5) and notes the progressive development of intemperance. ̃ “...drunkenness resembles certain hereditary, family and contagious diseases.” p. 8 ̃ Rush notes that the hereditary quality of intemperance should lead one to be cautious in one’s matrimonial matches to avoid the risk of inebriate children. p. 8 ̃ Rush presents neither a fully articulated disease concept nor a treatment protocol that flows out of this concept.

First American temperance society organized in Litchfield, CT.

Rush, B. Plan for an Asylum for Drunkards to be Called the Sober House (1810). In: The Commonplace Book of Benjamin Rush, 1792-1813, In: The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush (1948) Edited by Corner, G.W. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 354-355.

̃ Rush calls for creation of a special hospital for inebriates (“Sober House”)

The British observer Samuel Crumpe compares opium use in Turkey and the Levant to use of wine and liquor in Europe; he says in these countries opium serves as “the support of the coward, the solace of the wretched, and the daily source of intoxication to the debauchee.” This view, which also takes hold in the U.S., stresses the exotic nature of the drug and its users and ascribes addiction as a problem of the less civilized. (Morgan) (Acker)

Opium as a form of stimulant is a common theme for the theses medical students must write to graduate from America’s few medical schools. An example is John Augustine Smith’s “Inaugural Dissertation on Opium Embracing its History, Chemical Analysis, and Use and Abuse as a Medicine,” submitted to the faculty of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, University of the State of New York, in 1832. (Acker)

1784

1789 1790

1793

late 18th/early 19th century

1803 Wilson, D. (1803). An Inaugural Dissertation on the Morbid Effects of Opium on the Human Body. In: Grob, G., Ed., Origins of Medical Attitudes Toward Drug Addiction in America. New York: Arno Press. ̃ Includes cases of the “habitual use of opium” including one submitted by Rush, p. 30

1803 Scott, Franklin (1803). Experiments and Observations on the Means of Counteracting the Deleterious Effects of Opium and on the Method of Cure of the Disease Resulting Therefrom. In: Grob, G., Ed., Origins of Medical Attitudes Toward Drug Addiction in America. New York: Arno Press. ̃ Refers to opium overdose as a disease. p. 40 ̃ Refers to those “habituated to its (opium) use.” p. 45 ̃ Withdrawal: “...among those who have been in the habit of eating opium, if they are at any time deprived of the usual dose, they are rendered miserable...” p. 46

1803 Serteurner isolates and describes morphine. This, the first isolation of an alkaloid from a plant, is a key moment in the emergence of modern pharmacology, one focus of which will be the production of new drugs. Though created as medicines, some of these will be used recreationally and will be associated with problems of dependence. Later the Progressive Era concerns about opiate and cocaine use follow closely on the introduction and widespread sales of such compounds as morphine, cocaine, heroin, veronal, and aspirin. (Goodman & Gilman) (Acker)

1804 Trotter, T. (1804). Essay, Medical Philosophical, and Chemical, on Drunkenness and its Effects on the Human Body. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme. ̃ Trotter, an Edinburgh physician, publishes his essay on drunkenness in which he sets forth the proposition that the habit of drunkenness is a “disease of the mind.”

̃ “In medical language, I consider drunkenness, strictly speaking, to be a disease produced by a remote cause in giving birth to actions and movements in a living body that disorders the function of health.” ̃ “The habit of drunkenness is a disease of the mind.”

̃ Recommends regular meetings between physician and patient to formulate and implement a sobriety plan--references to gaining confidence of patient, etc. reflect a type of medical psychotherapy. ̃ Published in U.S. in 1813.

̃ Introduced with excerpts in Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 2(3):584- 591 December, 1941.

1811 A temperance society in Fairfield, Connecticut calls for total abstinence, acknowledging that this is a harsh remedy, “but the nature of the disease absolutely requires it.” (White, 1998, p. 3)

1812-1813 Delirium tremens recognized and medically described by Lettsom, Armstrong, Pearson and then named by Thomas Sutton. (Wilkerson, 1966, p.64)

1815 Reason=s Plea for Temperance (1815). (New England Tract Society, Volume 3). Andover: Flagg and Gould.

̃ “To attempt to reform a confirmed drunkard is much the same, as preaching to a madman or idiot.”

1819 Christopher Wilhelm Hufeland coins the term dipsomania to describe the uncontrollable cravings for spirits that triggers “drink storms.”

1820 Bound, J.J. (1820). The Means of Curing and Preventing Intemperance. New York: Charles N. Baldwin & Chamber. (Quoted in Brent, 1996) ̃ Intemperance is “considered a vice, treated with ridicule and contempt...people do not dream of it being a disorder, or think it to be within the reach of medicine.” p. 3-4

1822 Thomas De Quincey publishes Confessions of an English Opium-Eater. This work and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “Xanadu” launch the Romantic image of the aristocratic, bohemian opium user. (Acker)

1822 John Eberle characterizes opiate withdrawal: “When the system is entirely free from the influence of the accustomed stimulant, torments of the most distressing kind are experienced.” This is an early statement of the position that opiate withdrawal is a uniquely harrowing physical and mental experience. (Morgan) (Acker)

1825 Lyman Beecher delivers his Six Sermons on the Nature, Occasion, Signs, and Remedy of Intemperance. (Published 2 years later)

̃ Refers to the intemperate as being “addicted to the sin,” “the evil habit” ̃ Refers to “insatiable desire for drink”, “inordinate and dangerous love of strong drink” ̃ Progression: “...he will hasten on to ruin with accelerated movement”

̃ “Intemperance is a disease as well as a crime, and were any other disease, as contagious, of as marked symptoms, and as mortal, to pervade the land, it would create universal consternation: for the plague is scarcely more contagious or more deadly; and yet we mingle fearlessly with the diseased, and in spite of admonition we bring into our dwellings the contagion, apply it to our lip, and receive it into the system.” p. 37

̃ Excessive drinking marks “...the beginning of a habit, which cannot fail to generate disease.” p. 39 ̃ “There is no remedy for intemperance but the cessation of it.” p. 43 ̃ Amazingly modern checklist of warning signs. Pp. 44-45

1826 American Temperance Society formed - first national temperance organization. 9

1828 Drake, Daniel (1828). A Discourse on Intemperance. In: Grob, G. (1981) Nineteenth Century Medical Attitudes Toward Alcohol Addiction. New York: Arno Press. ̃ References to “habitual drinking;” “Thus, by repetition we are made to relish equally the savor and the effects of ardent spirits; and, at last become drunkards, from taste as well as constitution.” p. 24

̃ Refers to intemperance as a “vice” and notes that “vices are gregarious...go in flocks.” Intemperance, gambling, profanity ̃ Lists causes of intemperance as: 1) habitual drinking, 2) use of alcohol in business, 3) gambling, 4) use of alcohol in the trades, 5) smoking ASegars@ (“...tobacco disturbs the nervous systems of most young persons to such a degree, that the stimulus of ardent spirits is, in some measure, necessary to sustain or restore them.” (p. 31), 6) matrimonial unhappiness, 7) the multiplication of drinking establishments, and 8) the growth of small distilleries.

̃ “The disorders of body produced by habitual intemperance, are various in different persons, and at different periods of life.” p. 39 -- Lists them in following categories: 1) Stomach, 2) Liver, 3) Lungs, 4) Dropsy, 5) Gout, 6) Sore Eyes, 7) Firey eruption of the nose and skin, 8) Leprosy, 9) Muscular weakness, 10) Epileptic convulsions, 11) Apoplexy, 12) Spontaneous combustion, and 13) Bad habit of the body (lowered immunity to disease). ̃ “...the habit being once established, he will not, I almost say cannot, refrain.” p. 54

1828 Sweetser, William (1828). A Dissertation on Intemperance. In: Grob, G. (1981) Nineteenth Century Medical Attitudes toward Alcohol Addiction. New York: Arno Press. ̃ “...a course of unnatural stimulation cannot long continue operative on the living economy without inducing some morbid alteration in some of the vital tissues, and a consequent derangement in the function of the organ or organs, whose structures become thus affected.” p. 8

̃ “We are born with, inherit from our parents, or acquire from accidental circumstances after birth, different conditions of physical structure, some peculiarities in the life of the tissues, which cause them to take on with great facility particular modes of diseased action, and which constitute what we commonly denominate predispositions.” p. 10

̃ “...it is not an easy matter to set limits to the diseases of intemperance; for though its influence is unquestionably exercised on some tissues with more facility than others, yet it is specially confined to none....there is hardly any vital structure, but intemperance may either directly or indirectly injure.” p. 11

̃ Does not use term disease for intemperance but talks about “observed deviations from healthy structure, and natural function” that have a close relationship with the habitual use of distilled spirits. The man “addicted to intemperance” experiences altered susceptibility to various diseases and his altered state “establishes a new set of morbid predispositions.” p. 12

̃ “...the intemperate are liable to almost all those obscure and varying complaints which ignorance has caused us to generalize under the unmeaning name of nervous disorders.” p. 43 ̃ Refers to the “habit of intemperance” but describes its hold: “Few habits enthrall by so potent a spell the voluntary and reasoning powers of man and so enslave his moral faculties as that of intemperance, and few are there for, whose shackles we less frequently become delivered.” p. 83 ̃ “They now say they must drink...The Poison must now be used as an antidote to the poison.” p. 84 ̃ “Now that it (intemperance) becomes a disease no one doubts, but then it is a disease produced and maintained by voluntary acts, which is a very different thing from a disease with which providence inflicts us.” p. 97 ̃ “And I feel convinced that should the opinion ever prevail that intemperance is a disease like fever, mania, etc., and no moral turpitude be affixed to it, drunkenness, if possible, will spread itself even to a more alarming extent than at present.” p. 98

1828 Dr. Eli Todd, superintendent of the Hartford Retreat for the insane, urges that an inebriate asylum be established under the direction of an enlightened physician.

1828 Kain, J.H. (1828). On Intemperance Considered as a Disease and Susceptible of Cure. American Journal of Medical Science, 2:291-295

̃ Refers to the “depraved appetite which bids defiance to all moral restraint, and impels the unhappy sufferer to the gratification of a propensity which increases with this disease...” p. 291 ̃ “In every temperate man, there is an immutable association in his mind between stimulating liquors and the relief they afford to all unpleasant sensation which I have described as forming his disease...To cure him, we must break up this association and convince him, by actual sensations that his remedy has lost its effect.” p. 293

̃ Refers to Rush’s use of an emetic in cure of a drunkard and further references a product--Chamber’s remedy for intemperance--sold as a cure for drunkenness that contains emetic tartar. ̃ Cites a maxim in medicine: “Chronic diseases require chronic cures.” p. 295

1829 Beman, N.S. (1829). Beman on Intemperance (rev. Stereotype ed.). New York: John P. Haven. (Cited in Hore, 1991; Dean & Poremba, 1983) ̃ “When the case is formed and the habit established no man is his own master.” pp. 6-7

1830-1840 Experiments and clinical observations by Prout, Beaumont, and Percy document the pathophysiology of alcohol on the stomach and blood. (Wilkerson, 1966, p. 98)

1830-1850 The social ideology of the new nation is marked by a “cult of curability.” 11

Inebriate asylums grow from the same confidence that births other reform institutions-prisons, insane asylums, orphanages. (Tyler, 1944, “Freedom’s Ferment”)

1830 Influenced by Todd, the Connecticut State Medical Society calls for creation of inebriate asylums.

1831 Dr. Samuel Woodward, Superintendent at the hospital for the insane at Worcester, MA writes a series of essays that are published in 1836 and again in 1838. “A large proportion of the intemperate in a well-conducted institution would be radically cured, and would again go into society with health reestablished, diseased appetites removed, with principles of temperance well grounded and thoroughly understood, so that they would be afterwards safe and sober men.”

̃ “...intemperance is too much of a physical disease to be cured by moral means only.” p. 2 ̃ “Intemperance is disease.” p. 19 ̃ Intemperance a product of “morbid appetite.” p. 21

̃ Reference to “mind and body diseased and debased by this practice.” p. 23 ̃ “The disease [of intemperance] may be hereditary, and thus liable to return...So it is with other diseases; one attack increases the susceptibility of the system to the second.” p. 8

̃ “The grand secret of the cure for intemperance is total abstinence from alcohol in all its forms.” p. 8 ̃ Woodward believed that any criminality involved in inebriety was in the use and moderate use of spirits when “the individual is a free agent...” p. 1

̃ “But intemperance can never be cured, if the practice of moderate drinking is persisted in; the only hope is total abstinence. No substitute is admissible: wine, ale, opium, peppermint, must be wholly prohibited, or the appetite will not be removed.” p. 10. This is change in Rush’s position of advocating substitution of cider, ale, wine and opium for distilled spirits.

1832 Smith, W. (1832). An Inaugural Dissertation on Opium, Embracing Its History, General Chemical Analysis and Use and Abuse as a Medicine. In: Grob, G., Ed., Origins of Medical Attitudes Toward Drug Addiction in America. New York: Arno Press.

̃ “Opium should never be used as a substitute for the ordinary stimulus of wine or spirits: for when it is thus used, it seldom fails to lay the foundation for a long train of morbid symptoms, which, sooner or later, terminate in all the wretchedness, which disease is capable of inflicting...” p. 21

1832 Springwater, Doctor (1832). The Cold-Water-Man. Albany: Packard and Van Benthuysen.

̃ “...the use of ardent spirits produces a disease of the stomach, which goes with the drunkard to his grave. His craving, insatiable appetite, unnatural in its production, as well as its demands, deranges and racks the system...To sustain the

vigor of this disease, it must be fed with such an aliment if at first denied, the desire for it increases to such a degree, as to deprive its unhappy victim almost to desperation.” p. 17 ̃ “Entire abstinence from all alcoholic drinks does not cure the disease called into existence by the ordinary use, in any quantity of ardent spirits. It only leaves it in a dormant state...Let those who have been once overcome by this deadly foe, never suffer it again to enter their system.” p. 17-18 ̃ “He (the drunkard) stalks about like a moral pestilence, scattering his vile contagion with every breath. He is a walking plague, a living death. He caters for hell. He recruits for the devil. Oh! What a deadly damp does he breathe on his country, creating a poisonous influence, and scattering a moral and physical pestilence upon its shores!” p. 24 ̃ Refers to the drunkard as a “voluntary slave to his cups.” p. 26 ̃ “To use ardent spirits as a beverage, in any quantity, is to prepare ourselves to become food for the monster intemperance. It watches the moderate drinker, ready every moment to make him its prey.” p. 94 ̃ All, with one voice, are ready to exclaim, “Slay the monster intemperance. Its crimes are written in blood. It deserves to die...yet many cherish the monster in their bosom; many feed it with their children’s bread...The monster intemperance will never die for thirst while fed with a little alcohol.” p. 99 ̃ “ ‘Let all drunkards abstain entirely,’ says another, ‘and this will arrest the progress of intemperance.’ Could this be done, it would not banish intemperance from the earth. In a single year, more than 30,000 moderate drinkers would step forward to fill up the vacated ranks of drunkenness.” p. 100 ̃ “The monster intemperance can be slain by the single blow of entire abstinence.” p. 103 ̃ “The system therefore of him who gets drunk on alcohol, is deranged and thrown into a diseased state...” p. 147 ̃ “As to the appetite for alcohol or the disease of drunkenness, distilled liquor and that only, will usually produce it. It is therefore evident that, though to become intoxicated on any article, is an exceeding aggravated evil, yet to become intoxicated on ardent spirits, injures the drunkard and the community much more than to become intoxicated on fermented liquors, and it is therefore the greater evil.” p. 147-148 ̃ “You say, ‘Let the drunkards join temperance societies,’ Do you think these associations are good and useful? When or where did you ever hear of drunkards associating together for any good object?” ̃ Section on “Reformation of the Drunkard” that begins with a case study of a drunkard reformed by joining a local temperance society. p. 298

1833 Secretary of War, Lewis Cass. (Speech printed in American Quarterly Temperance Magazine, 2:121-125).

̃ Intemperance is so “overpowering that it assumes “entire mastery” over the individual.”

1833 Sigorney, L. and Smith, G. (1833). The Intemperate and the Reformed. Boston: Seth Bliss.

̃ Reference to “fetters which bind them down to tyrant appetite.” p. 5 ̃ Growing awareness of morbidity and mortality-references to the distillery and the tavern as “fountains of disease and death.” p. 6 ̃ Growing use of disease analogy even where disease isn’t directly applied to intemperance. “There was hope for our friend, if the yellow fever or even the plague was upon him; but none if he became a drunkard.” p. 24 ̃ Growing recognition of progression: “the gradations of moderate drinking, of tippling, and of hard drinking have been observable in this case, as in the cases of most drunkards.” p. 27 ̃ “Was for a long time a moderate daily drinker--next a tippler--and thence, by quick march, a full grown drunkard.” p. 31 ̃ Case studies of 38 reformed drunkard presented; most attribute cures to religion or involvement with the local temperance society. ̃ Fly in spider web metaphor use to describe the drunkard’s entrapment. p. 27 (Note growing pervasiveness of slavery and entrapment metaphors)

1835 Macnish’s Anatomy of Drunkenness offers a typology of seven types of drunkards: the sanguineous drunkard, the melancholy drunkard, the surly drunkard, the phlegmatic drunkard, the nervous drunkard, the choleric drunkard and the periodic drunkard.

̃ “Some are drunkards by choice, and some by necessity.”

1838 In France, Esquirol calls the disease of intemperance a “monomania of drunkenness a mental illness whose principle character is an irresistible tendency toward fermented beverages.” (Paredes, 1976, p. 22)

1840 Grinrod, R.B. (MD) (1838). Bacchus. ̃ “I am more than ever convinced that...drunkenness is a disease, physical as well as moral, and consequently requires physical as well as moral remedies.” Quoted in Hargreaves, 1884, p. 278

1842 A Member of the Society. (1842). The Foundation, Progress and Principles of the Washingtonian Temperance Society of Baltimore, and the Influence it has had on the Temperance Movements in the United States. Baltimore: John D. Toy. ̃ “He [the drunkard] knows and feels that drunkenness with him is rather a disease than a vice.” p. 40 (Italics in original)

1842 Nicolay, J.G. and Hay, J. Eds. Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln. New York: Lamb Publishing Company, Vol. 1, pp193-209.

Address Before the Springfield Washington Temperance Society, February 22, 1842. ̃ “...those who have suffered by intemperance personally, and have reformed, are the most powerful and efficient instruments to push the reformation to

ultimate success...” ̃ “In my judgment such of us as have never fallen victims (to intemperance) have been spared more by the absence of appetite than from any mental or moral superiority over those who have.”

1842 Glasgow physician Hutcheson notes that the essence of dipsomania is “the irresistible impulse which drives the unhappy being to do that which he knows to be pernicious and wrong, and which, in the intervals of the paroxysms, he views with loathing and disgust.” (quoted in Carpenter, 1853)

1849 Swedish physician Magnus Huss introduces term “alcoholism” in his text, Chronic Alcoholism ; it does not appear in the US until after the Civil War. Huss notes: “These symptoms are formed in such a particular way that they form a disease group in themselves and thus merit being designated and described as a definite disease...It is this group of symptoms which I wish to designate by the name Alcoholismus chronicus.” (quoted in Marconi, 1959) ̃ “The name chronic alcoholism applies to the collective symptoms of a disordered condition of the mental, motor, and sensory functions of the nervous system...affecting individuals who have persisted in the abuse of alcoholic liquors.” (quoted in Marcet, 1868, p. 21) ̃ Huss term focuses on the biological consequences of prolonged heavy drinking.

1849 Hills, R. (1849). On the Pathology and Medication of Intemperance as a Disease. Proc. Med. Conv., Ohio, pp. 15-20

1850 Allen, Nathan (1850). An Essay on the Opium Trade. In: Grob, G., Ed., Origins of Medical Attitudes Toward Drug Addiction in America. New York: Arno Press. ̃ “There is no slavery on earth, to be compared to with the bondage into which Opium casts its victims. There is scarcely one known instance of escape from its toils, when once they have fairly enveloped a man.” p. 25

̃ “It is not the man who eats Opium, but it is Opium that eats the man.” p. 25

1853 The hypodermic syringe is developed as a refinement of the use of cannulae to introduce drugs beneath the skin. Morphine is one of the first drugs for which the syringe is commonly used, to treat such conditions as facial neuralgia. (Acker)

1857 Washingtonian Home in Boston. The terms “disease” and “vice,” “cure” and “reformation” were used interchangeably and sober outcomes were attributed to the influences of family, friends, and the fellowship, not to medical intervention.

1857 Fitzhugh Ludlow publishes The Hasheesh Eater, an American work in the genre pioneered by De Quincey and Coleridge. He writes of opiates, “The emasculation of the will itself, ...is in reality the most terrible characteristic of the injury

wrought by these agents.” The idea that opiates debase the will and sap the capacity for moral action becomes the foundation of the view that addiction is a moral vice rather than an illness. (Morgan) (Acker)

1857 Dr. James Turner in an address to the Board of Directors of the New York State Inebriate Asylum:

̃ “Inebriety is the first disease of which we have any record.” p16

1860 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., dean of Harvard Medical School, blames physicians for causing opiate addiction through careless prescribing. He characterizes the problem as especially serious in the Western states where, he says, “the constant prescription of opiates by certain physicians...has rendered the habitual use of that drug in that region very prevalent... A frightful endemic demoralization betrays itself in the frequency with which the haggard features and drooping shoulders of the opium drunkards are met with in the street.” By claiming the problem lies with Western physicians who were likely trained in proprietary medical schools rather than with elite Eastern physicians like himself, Holmes’s statement reflects growing tensions and rivalries within the medical profession in nineteenth- century America. (Acker)

1860 Peddie, A. (1860). Dipsomania: A Proper Subject for Legal Provision.

Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science,

538-546. ̃ Peddie calls for legal commitment of dipsomaniacs to inebriate asylums. He distinguished between common drunkards whose excessive drinking was a vice and the “insane drinker” whose vice had been transformed into a disease no longer under his volitional control. He believed this disease could be inherited or acquired. p. 539-40 ̃ Peddie suggested that dipsomaniacs suffered from a disease of the brain.

1861-1865 The use of opium and morphine in the treatment of disease and injury is widespread during the Civil War and the use of the hypodermic syringe becomes more widespread by the end of the War. While opium addiction will in later years become labeled the “soldier’s disease” because of such use, there are very few accounts of soldiers addicted during the war, but both disease and injury create a large vulnerable population in the post-civil war patent medicine era.

The Combined Addiction Disease Chronologies of William White, MA, Ernest Kurtz, PhD, and Caroline Acker, PhD 1864 - 1879

The years 1864-1879 mark the birth of the nation’s first inebriate homes and asylums and their beginning professionalization via the American Association for the Cure of Inebriety (AACI). Although the AACI=s first founding principle is the proclamation that inebriety is a disease, there is some disagreement within the association on this very point (See Harris, 1874).

Papers from the annual AACI meetings and, after 1876, the Journal of Inebriety, mark the beginning of a deluge of literature propounding various disease conceptualizations of addiction. The period witnesses growing concern with opiate morphine addiction and the first incorporation of drugs other than alcohol within the emerging disease concept of inebriety. The founding of the Keeley Institutes marks the beginning of private addiction cure institutes (many of them franchised in multiple locations) who will use a disease concept of addiction both as a clinical philosophy and a marketing strategy. New breakthroughs in microbiology lead to discoveries of the causes of many diseases (from anthrax to syphilis) and spawn many theories about the biological causes of addiction.

1864 Dr. James Turner, after years of agitating that inebriety is a disease that should be medically treated, opens America’s first inebriate asylum in Binghamton, NY.

1864 Edward Parrish, in his A Treatise on Pharmacy (Philadelphia, p. 172) notes how citizens who would not abuse alcohol take opium until “they become victims to one of the worst habits.”

1864 The first case of morphine addiction involving the use of the hypodermic syringe is reported. (Pettey, 1913, p. 2)

1864 Moore, G. (1864). The Desire for Intoxicating Liquors, A Disease: Its Causes, Its Effects, and Its Cure, with the Danger of a Relapse. Baltimore.

1866 Keller (1975). “It is to the French physician, Gabriel, that we owe the simple and quite adequate term alcoholism, in its correct modern sense, and even the first direct consideration of it as a public health problem.” Gabriel’s 1866 doctoral thesis was entitled (translated) Essay on Alcoholism, Considered Principally from the Viewpoint of Public Hygiene.

1867 Ludlow, F. (1867). What Shall They Do to Be Saved? Harper’s Magazine 35(August): 377-387.

̃ “Now, such a man (opium addict) is a proper subject, not for reproof, but for medical treatment. The problem of this case need embarrass nobody. It is as purely physical as one of small-pox. When this truth is as widely understood among the laity as it is known by physicians, some progress may be made in staying the frightful ravages of opium among the present generation.” p. 379

̃ References to “opium disease” throughout the article

1867 Day, Albert (1867). Methomania: A Treatise on Alcoholic Poisoning. Boston: James Campbell. In: Grob, G. (1981). Nineteenth Century Medical Attitudes Toward Alcohol Addiction. New York: Arno Press. ̃ “I have selected this title as an appropriate general name for that disease which, in its several forms or stages of development, is variously termed Drunkenness, Inebriety, Dipsomania, Methexia....” p. 5 (Original)

̃ “...that disease which I have ventured to call Methomania, with its varied and 17

complex character, and involving as it does abnormal conditions of both mind and body, must demand of the faithful physician all his resources of physiological and psychological science.” p. 43 ̃ “Let it be remembered, that such a man is diseased, and that he is fighting not against temptation only, but against temptation fostered by the morbid elements of his own physical and mental nature.” p. 49-50

1868 Marcet, W. (MD) (1868). On Chronic Alcoholic Intoxication. New York: Moorhead, Simpson, & Bond, Publishers.

̃ Chapter entitled, “Chronic Alcoholism” ̃ “With respect to the use of alcoholic stimulants, if the patient has completely given them up for some time, and entirely lost his taste for liquor, I have been in the habit of recommending about a pint of bitter beer daily.” p. 76; also recommended tea and coffee as substitutes.

1868 Report of a Joint Special Committee Appointed to Consider the Matter of Inebriation as a Disease, and the Expediency of Treating the Same at Rainsford Island. (1868). Boston: Wright, & Potter, State Printers. ̃ Governor Andrew, addressing the Legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1863: “I most respectfully, but urgently advise that the Legislature initiate measures to establish an asylum for the treatment of inebriates. Drunkenness is a disease as well as a sin. We have long since legislated for its punishment; let us no longer neglect to legislate for its cure.” p.2 ̃ “...the continued use of alcoholic drinks produces a disease, peculiar and distinct from all other disease; having a distinct pathology, and presenting post mortem appearances unlike those of any other disease, being as characteristic as those of typhoid fever or pneumonia.” p. 4

1870 Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt of Cambridge expresses his alarm at so few warnings about the hypodermic injection of morphine. (Sonnedecker, 1962, p. 28)

1870 John Gough: “Drunkenness is a mysterious disease, and the power of the appetite on a nervous susceptible organization is almost absolute, and there is no remedy but total abstinence-total and entire. You cannot make a moderate drinker of a drunkard.” Crowley, 1999, p. 155

1870 Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of Charities and Correction (Quoted in Hargreaves, 1884, p. 276)

̃ “Habitual drunkenness is a moral disease (also physical), for which, as in other forms of licentiousness, there is no specific, except the resolute determination of the patient.” ̃ “Those addicted to drunkenness are in general too infirm, in purpose to persist in their resolution of amendment, and this infirmity of purpose is one of the sad consequences of this vice.” p. 278

1870 An association of inebriate homes and asylums, the American Association for the Cure of Inebriety, is founded on the principle: “inebriety is a disease.” The Association bylaws posit that:

1. Intemperance is a disease. 2. It is curable in the same sense that other diseases are. 3. Its primary cause is a constitutional susceptibility to the alcoholic impression. 4. This constitutional tendency may be either inherited or acquired. (Proceedings, 1870-1875)

The legacy of the inebriate asylum movement is a biologically based approach to understanding addiction, the corollary claim that addiction is the special province of medicine, the notion that successful treatment requires legal coercion, and the assertion that treatment is both a responsibility of government and a commodity to be sold on the private market.

The inebriate asylum period distinguishes between “treatment” -- alleviation of acute intoxication, the medical management of withdrawal and care of acute medical problems, and “cure” -- the elimination of the morbid craving for the drug. The later rediscovery of this distinction by Jolliffe will mark the beginning of the modern alcoholism movement.

1870 Dodge AACI paper ̃ “May we hope the day is not far distant when this disease (which is now universally acknowledge to be a disease by the profession), will be thoroughly investigated, and firmly established on a scientific foundation, and a treatment adopted that will place it in the list of diseases, that are quite as well understood, and as successfully treated as insanity or typhoid fever.” (Proceedings, p. 52) ̃ “At the present day the principal remedy prescribed for this disease is abstinence-TOTAL ABSTINENCE is the heroic remedy in all cases of inebriety.” (Proceedings, p. 52)

1870 Albert Day AACI Paper ̃ “One of the earliest results of the establishment of these Asylums, was the discovery, after treatment of a very few cases, that inebriety was a disease rather than a vice...” (Proceedings, p. 65)

1870 AACI Minutes ̃ Definition of hereditary: “...some persons are born with temperaments and tendencies, which predispose them to seek such exaltation or relief, as is obtained from alcoholic stimulants.” (Proceedings, p. 27) ̃ “the diseased portion of the mind in such cases (inebriety) is chiefly of the will, not the intellect.” p. 37 (Italics in original)

1870s forward Physiological study of effects of morphine administration, including animal

studies, is carried out in American and European laboratories. Doses, duration of action, and route of administration are correlated with physiological effects such as respiratory depression. Warnings about addictiveness of morphine and a shifting cluster of other drugs begin to be common in the medical literature. (Acker)

1870s-90s Physicians prescribe morphine for wide ranging indications, reflecting the range of morphine’s physiological actions and prevailing ideas about disease. Morphine is known to relieve pain, promote sleep, ease anxiety, combat diarrhea, reduce coughing. Humoral models of disease favor medications with a broad range of systemic effects. In the competitive American medical scene, “regular” physicians distinguish themselves by prescribing drugs, like morphine, which produce clear physiological effects. As all medications are available for purchase without prescription, people medicate themselves to relieve symptoms, according to popular notions of disease. Examples: Women take morphine to relieve menstrual cramps, and mothers teach their daughters to do this. Women take morphine to ease the anxieties and pressures connected with their social roles. (Rosenberg; Acker, “Anodyne”; Courtwright) (Acker)

1871 Physician J. H. Etheridge warns of the chloral hydrate habit. (Morgan) (Acker)

1871 George M. Beard estimates there are 150,000 opiate addicts in the U.S. Beard becomes famous for elaborating the concept of neurasthenia, a condition he believes to afflict those engaged in the complex mental tasks associated with an urbanizing and industrializing civilization of growing complexity. He remains the chief exponent of the view that higher types bear a special susceptibility to nervous conditions, including addiction. This idea contrasts with (a) an increasingly common tendency in the U.S. to associate opiate use with stigmatized groups and (b) a view of addiction disease as occurring independently of individuals’ social status or character. (Morgan) (Acker)

1871 AACI issues statement that the morals of the inebriate--their presence or absence- -are not relevant to the fact of their diseased state.

Dr. William Wey AACI Paper ̃ “The question is asked, what do you treat? A habit independent of control; a disordered mind and a perverted will; or a diseased body, whose crowning honor, the brain, is the seat and centre of pathological change? The proper and successful treatment of inebriety includes all of these conditions and much besides.” (Proceedings, pp. 27-28)

1871 AACI Paper of W.C. Lawrence Supt, Boston Washingtonian Home. “I am inclined to believe that intemperance is a disease of the mind rather than the body.” (Proceedings, p. 86)

1871 Parrish AACI address ̃ “If intemperance is not a disease, how come it that so many tens of thousands of people die from it every year?” ̃ “Disease, too, that may be both the result of present excess, and likewise a cause of the tendency to inordinate indulgence.” p. 4 ̃ “What percentage, indeed, of other diseases are cured so that we can say they will never return?” (Proceedings, p. 9) ̃ “Truth is never injured by fair criticism, and science cannot be blinded by more light. We are not struggling to maintain pet dogmas, but to reach good results to our fellow men. Let us be honest to confess errors if we find them, and bold enough to re-assert what we have already declared, if we are satisfied that the interests of morality and science demand such re-assertion.” (Proceedings, p. 11)

1871 The American Association for the Study and Cure of Inebriety passes a resolution stating that drug effects are “the same in the virtuous, as in the vicious” and insisting on the centrality of a disease explanation of inebriety. Proponents of the inebriety concept argue that there is a scientific basis for the inebriety disease model. Several aspects of this model contrast with the disease model that will dominate from the 1920s to the 1970s. Inebriety is essentially the same disease no matter what drug is involved (although cause and appropriate treatment might vary depending on what drug is taken). It rejects explanations based on defects of character. Inebriety is also understood as a progressive condition; this aspect resembles Jellinek’s later construction of alcoholism. Abstinence is seen as the only acceptable treatment goal. (White 35 lc, 36 rc) (Acker)

1872 Brown, H. (1872). An Opium Cure: Based on Science, Skill and Matured Experience. New York: Fred M. Brown & Co. (Advertising Book for Antidote and Restorative) In: Grob, G. (1981) American Perceptions of Drug Addiction. New York: Arno Press. ̃ Described “Chronic Opium Disease” as a new and “intricate” disease. p. 17 ̃ “Opium is often taken for the relief of suffering from chronic diseases until the opium habit has become confirmed and the two diseases reign together.” p. 38 Note habit and disease used interchangeably.

1873 AACI --Dr. Parrish ̃ “Men become drunkards from very different causes, and require very different treatment to effect a cure.” (Proceedings, p. 54) ̃ An 1870 report of the Commissioners of Charities and Corrections for the city of New York refers to inebriety as a “moral disease” that should be classed with other forms of “licentiousness.” (Proceedings, p. 91) ̃ “Upon the subject of inebriety, I think the following may be regarded as facts: 1) That it is a disease of the constitutional character, involving the entire organism in its consequences, 2) that the true disease is the morbid craving for alcohol, of

which the act of drinking is but an effect.” (Parrish, Proceedings, p. 94)

1874 Heroin is invented but is not marketed until 1898. (Acker)

1874 George Beard Address AACI ̃ “The great predisposing cause of the disease (chronic alcoholism) is civilization, which, by its constant brain-work and flurry of in-door life, brings the nervous system to that state of susceptibility when alcohol, acting on it for a long time, can excite a functional disturbance.” (Proceedings, p. 52 and p. 64)

1874 AACI Paper of Dr. George Burr of NY State Inebriate Asylum ̃ “It is this condition of the nervous system, calling for alcoholic stimulants that is essentially the disease.” (Proceedings, p. 78)

1874 AACI Paper of Dr. Robert Harris, FranklinReformatory ̃ “As we do not, either in name or management, recognize drunkenness as the effect of a diseased impulse; but regard it as a habit, sin, and crime, we do not speak of cases being cured in a hospital, but ‘reformed’.” (Proceedings, p. 80)

1874 McKenzie, D. (1874). The Appleton Temporary Home: A Record of Work. Boston: Published for the Benefit of the Home.

̃ Quote supporting the work of the home by Alexander Rice, the Governor of Mass., references the purpose of the home being the “cure of alcoholic disease,” title page. ̃ McKenzie refers to inebriety as a “disease of the very machinery of volition” p. 72

̃ “The inebriate must be considered, not as a criminal, but as a sick man.” p. 139 ̃ “The moral susceptibilities of the slumbering inebriate must, in some manner, be awakened from their abnormal state, and made to assume a healthy condition, then the soul is prepared to receive spiritual food...” pp 281-282.

1874 Ordronaux, J. (1874). Is habitual drunkenness a disease? American Journal of Insanity, April, p. 439.

̃ “The problem if self-abasement or self-redemption is entirely within his control, provided he exercise a continuous determination of his will not to partake. The key to the riddle of this alleged disease lies in man’s own will, and without this will effort, no physician can cure or even relieve him.” (Quoted in Valverde, 1997)

1875 ACCI Paper “The Distinction between Disease and the Morbid Anatomy of Disease Applied to Inebriety.” Proceedings, p. 71-84

̃ “It is this condition of the nervous system, calling for alcoholic stimulants that is essentially the disease.” p. 78

1875 At the June meeting of the Association of Medical Superintendents of American 22

Institutions for the Insane: ̃ “Resolved further that the treatment in institutions for the insane of dipsomaniacs, or persons whose only obvious mental disorder is the excessive use of alcoholic or other stimulants, and the immediate effect of such excess, is exceedingly prejudicial to the welfare of those inmates for whose benefit such institutions are established an maintained, and should be discontinued just as soon as other separate provision can be made for the inebriates.” (Quoted in Parrish, 1883, p. 121

1875-1877 Eduard Levinstein publishes a series of articles in Germany that call attention to the problem of morphine addiction. His was one of first studies on narcotic addiction relapse (a rate he estimated as high as 75%). (Sonnedecker, 1962, p. 31)

1876 Dr. J. B. Mattison on the cause of addiction: “we strongly suspect it to be largely akin to that peculiar diathesis so strikingly manifested in most cases of genuine neuralgia, the main element of which is a well-marked hereditary tendency towards a debilitated state of the nervous system, either special or general.” This statement exemplifies a trend in psychiatric thinking in the late nineteenth century which posits a hereditary susceptibility to a broad range of mental and nervous conditions, including various forms of insanity, milder conditions including propensity to worry and nervousness, and neurological conditions such as epilepsy. The idea of diathesis, or inborn predisposition to a condition like addiction, remains influential in psychiatric thinking for several decades. (Morgan) (Acker)

1877 Foote, G.F. (1877). Inebriety and Opium Eating: In Both Cases a Disease. Method of Treatment and Conditions of Success. Portland, Maine. (Foote began treating alcohol and opium addicts in his private medical practice in 1848 and then opened the Dr. Foote’s Home in Stamford, CT)

̃ “It should be assumed on the part of the physician, that the habitual use of the alcoholic or narcotic element has diseased the system...in other words, has produced a physical and functional derangement of the organism, and that such has reduced the digestive, pulmonic, urinary, and nervous systems, to a condition that is thoroughly morbid. This is ever accompanied with a desire for alcohol or opium...which in the first instance was but slight, but grew stronger and stronger by indulgence, until is has been made absolutely irresistible.” p. 4

1877 Willet, J. (Rev.) (1877). The Drunkard’s Diseased Appetite: What is It? If Curable, How? By Miraculous Agency or Physical Means--Which? Fort Hamilton, NY: Inebriates Home, Fort Hamilton, Kings County, New York. (Read before the annual meeting of the American Association for the Cure of Inebriates, 1877) (Willet was the Superintendent of the Inebriate’s Home, Fort Hamilton, Kings County, NY)

̃ “...physical appetites...are the manifestation of diseased conditions of the 23

body.” p. 3 ̃ Willet noted that religious teachers have been mislead by so-called “reformed topers” who claimed to have been cured of an appetite for strong drink (which they never had) by religious conversion. “...religious teachers who, possessing more zeal than knowledge, undertake to proclaim to the inebriate, both from the platform and the pulpit, this strange and dangerous delusion.” p. 4-5 ̃ A distinction is made between problem drinkers and those who truly have a morbid appetite for alcohol. p. 5 ̃ “Whence comes this consuming thirst which this class of drunkards exhibits? There must be, somewhere within the man, a deep-seated diseased condition of the physical structure, which feeds upon and is intensified by the absorption of these fiery liquids.” p. 5 ̃ Quotes an experienced physician: “The desire for stimulants may be constant or paroxysmal--an irresistible and insatiable craving is either developed by ever so small an indulgence or is ever present. Persons with this predisposition lose their power of self-control as soon as they feel the influence of alcohol...the seeds of morbid appetite are transmissible to their children.” p. 6 ̃ Refers to a “certain class of inebriates who are irresistibly impelled by the force of a diseased appetite to drink to excess...” p. 11 ̃ Characterization of progression: “In these cases which we have already given in illustration ... the disease must proceed either to recovery or death, for there is no discharge in this war.” p. 14 ̃ Quoting the Rev. Charles Warren on religious conversion as a remedy for inebriety: “It is difficult to conceive that any man, in such a state of voluntarily- induced imbecility, too drunk to hold intelligent converse with men, can be competent to transact business with God...” p. 16

1877 The New York Times cites a medical expert opinion on addicts: “It is not a vice which afflicts them, but a disease, which presents as marked and as specific a symptomatology as do many of the better known diseases, and requiring, as they do, proper medical aid and systematic treatment to effect a cure.” This statement characterizes repeated attempts to characterize addiction as a disease according to disease-definition standards of a given period. Examples include defining addiction as a functional disease when the idea of functional disease becomes important in psychiatry and neurology (early 1900s) and Bishop’s and Pettey’s attempts to explain addiction with ideas derived from immunology (1913). (Morgan) (Acker)

1877-1906 Microbial causes are discovered for anthrax (1877), gonorrhea (1879), typhoid fever (1880), tuberculosis (1882), cholera (1883), diptheria (1883), tetanus (1884), diarrhea (1885), pneumonia (1886), menningitis (1887), botulism (1896), dysentery (1899), syphilis (1903) and whooping cough (1906). (Thagard, 1997, pp.10-11). These discoveries add momentum to search for biological foundation of inebriety.

1878 Morris, F. Baldwin (1878). The Panorama of a Life, And Experience in Associating and Battling with Opium and Alcoholic Stimulants. Philadelphia: Geo. W. Ward. In: Grob, Ed., (1981) American Perceptions of Drug Addiction. New York: Arno Press. ̃ Refers to “opium and alcoholic inebriacy” and opium and alcohol “habits” interchangeably. ̃ Includes chapter entitled “Alcoholism” p. 80

1878 Eduard Levinstein’s The Morbid Craving for Morphia is published in Germany, noting an “uncontrollable desire” for morphine and that the injudicious use of morphine produces a “diseased state.”

1878 The New York Times estimates there are 200,000 opiate addicts in the U.S. It warns of a dangerous fad, especially among society women, of injecting morphine; it terms this behavior a vice. (Morgan) (Acker)

1879 Dr. Leslie Keeley announces: “Drunkenness is a disease and I can cure it.” Contends that the disease results from poisoning of the cells and that his Bi- Chloride of Gold cured alcoholism by unpoisoning the cells. Marks beginning of franchised addiction cure institutes that use a disease concept of inebriety as a marketing slogan and treatment philosophy. (White, 1998)

1879 Crothers, T.D. (1879). Editorial: Practical Value of Inebriate Asylums. Journal of Inebriety, 3(4): 249

̃ “The Permanent cure of inebriates under treatment in asylums will compare favorably in numbers with that of any other disease of the nervous system which is more or less chronic before the treatment is commenced.”

0 notes

angrycollectordaze-me-blog · 5 years

Text

Essay代写：What Does Mencius Mean by “Human Nature”

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的essay代写范文- What Does Mencius Mean by “Human Nature”，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了孟子说的“人性”。孟子认为每个人的自然禀赋都有一个器官，这个器官是心或大脑。同时，有四种道德行为是与生俱来的：同情心、羞耻感和厌恶感、顺从感和尊重感、是非感。对于孟子来说，这四种行为是与生俱来的，而不是外在强加的限制。此外，孟子认为，人性中存在着善的可能性，道德的发展就是从这些倾向中产生的。

What does Mencius mean by “human nature”? Reflection on human nature has been an everlasting subject, and it plays a significant part in China (Scarpari, 2003). People began the discussion as early as the Eastern Zhou dynasty, which was between the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. (Scarpari, 2003). Among them, Mencius’s theory is still of far-reaching significance, and influences people’s understanding of human beings. In this way, the paper will discuss the meaning of human nature in Mencius’s opinion. This paper will firstly go over the historical background and main claims of Mencius’s theory on human nature, and then it discusses current existing interpretations towards Mencius’s human nature through analyzing how they support their arguments. Finally, it draws out some more general conclusions.

The documents that will be cited in this paper are:

David Young. “Yang, Zebo, Study on Mencius’ Theory of the Goodness of Human Nature.” Springer Science Business Media 11. (2012): 415-418

Donald J. Munro, “Mencius and an Ethics of the New Century,” in Alan K. L. Chan, ed., Mencius: Contexts and Interpretations (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002), pp. 305–315.

Irene Bloom, “Biology and Culture in the Mencius View of Human Nature,” in Chan, Mencius: Contexts and Interpretations (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002), pp. 91–102

James Behuniak. “Naturalizing Mencius.” Philosophy East & West 61. 3 (2011): 492-515

Maurizio Scarpari. “The Debate on Human Nature in Early Confucian Literature.” Philosophy East & West 53.3 (2003): 323-329

Yu Jiyuan. “Human Nature and Virtue in Mencius and Xunzi: An Aristotelian Interpretation.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy V. 1 (2005): 11-30

In this section, I will take about Mencius’s concepts on human nature and how people interpret them differently. However, it is necessary to firstly go over the historical background that Mencius put forwards his opinions. Based on the opinion of A. C. Graham, Yang Zhu and other thinkers’ doctrines of the Individualists first posed the issue of human nature in relation to the will of Heaven, which ran counter to the claims of the Confucians (Scarpari, 2003). As for Graham, Yang Zhu expressed clearly that he was opposed to the claims of the Confucius. He paid particular attention to the existence of private interests. He argued that, it is important for human beings to take care of themselves and enhance the quality of life, since the life is bestowed by the Heaven. In this way, the most significant task for human beings is to protect the gift provided by the Heaven. What is more, Yang Zhu also pointed out that, what important is to follow one’s nature and satisfy their ambitions and desires, and political and social life are regarded as harmful to human beings for Yang Zhu. Yang Zhu’s opinions are almost totally different from the Confucius. For example, the Confucius argued that, there is a morality legitimated and inspired directly by the Heaven, which is treated to safeguard individuality. At the same time, the Confucius tended to ignore the existence of private aspects, and stressed the importance of being goodness.

In the context, Mencius put forwards his opinion on human nature, and he held that, there is an organ for every human beings’ natural endowment, which is called as heart or mind. In the meanwhile, there are four moral behaviors which are carried with the natural endowment, the heart of compassion, the sense of shame and disgust, the sense of compliance and respect, and the sense of right and wrong (Yu, 2005). For Mencius, the four behaviors are inborn rather than the externally imposed restraints. Furthermore, Mencius argued that, there exists the possibility of being good in human nature, and the moral development derives from these tendencies.

“Mencius and an Ethics of the New Century”, a recent paper written by Donald J. Munro leads to people’s debate in terms of the meaning of Mencius’ human nature. For Munro (2002: 307), “‘human nature’ is derived from ‘Heaven’.” Consequently, Munro puts forwards that, it is necessary to take religious claims into consideration when draw inspiration from Mencius. However, some people express their opposed views. For example, Irene Bloom (2002) argues that, the word tian in Chinese shall be translated as “Nature” rather than “Heaven.” Facing with the debate in terms of Mencius, James Behuniak (2011) puts forwards his opinion on the issue. In the article, Behuniak (2011) argues that, people’s understanding of Mencius’s human nature is restricted to the library, time and place they stay. In other words, the meaning of Mencius’ human nature could be forever ambiguous. What is more, Behuniak (2011) believed that, the goal to read the Mencius is not to get it right at last, but take participate in a commentarial tradition that extends as far back as the text itself. However, on the other hand, Behuniak also mentions his own opinion in understanding Mencius’ human nature. He argues that, “it is prompted by and devised solely to defeat his adversaries”, “he means to defend the tradition of the Confucian Sages”, “the claim that Confucian virtues belong to ‘human nature’ is also a claim that Confucian virtues alone are qualitatively ‘human’.” In this way, for Behuniak, the reason why Mencius put forwards the theory of human nature is for the propaganda of the Confucian. In fact, the meaning of native activities is not native. In order to prove his argument, Behuniak takes John Dewey’s words as references. For instance, when it comes to demonstrate that the four sprouts are unlearned activities which are closely related to “family affection”, Dewey’s views are directly cited; “babies are defendant beings”, and the habits of babies are formed with the help of the adults. In other words, native activities are actually acquired. Furthermore, as Mencius held that the possession of four sprouts distinguishes human beings from other sorts, while Confucius virtues could make people human through the environment of family affection. Therefore, what finally important is not human nature but family affection or the compliance of Confucius virtues and values. Generally, Behuniak’s opinion has its rationality, since what people consider tends to depend on the position he (she) is staying. Facing with the challenged led by other theories such as Yang Zhu’s Doctrines of individualists, it is natural for Mencius to fight back. In addition, as Behuniak argues that, it is not possible to figure out the only right answer of the meaning of Mencius’ human nature, and even Mencius himself could have different opinions at different time or different standpoints.

On the other hand, Behuniak’s opinion also has limitations. For one thing, Behuniak does not directly explain the meaning of human nature, and he just points out that, goodness is not actually inborn but acquired through family affection. In “Human nature and virtue in Mencius and Xunzi”, Yu Yiyuan points out that, human nature in Mencius has two senses, on the one hand, it refers to whatever is inborn; for another thing, it refers to the inborn human characteristic. Mencius uses the second and narrow sense when he argues that goodness is human nature. Yu further explains the reason why he believes that Mencius uses the narrow sense when saying that goodness is human nature. He argues that, Mencius holds that there are various natures that human beings share with other animals. In other words, there are nature of cat and nature of rabbit. However, only the human beings who have four sprouts are treated to have good human nature. “Human nature is confined only to the four seeds, the flourishing of which makes a noble person (Yu, 2005: 13)”. On the other hand, it is difficult for Behuniak to explain Mencius’s concept of a pre-existent moral consciousness whose origin is validated by Heaven (Young, 2012). Mencius (6A6) points out that, “benevolence, dutifulness, observance of the rites, and wisdom do not give me a luster from the outside, they are in originally.” As Behuniak (2011) argues that, native activities are not native actually, and they are acquired through family affection. However, what Mencius describes is inborn rather than the influence of outside such as family members. In this way, the innate transcendent nature of moral consciousness seems to be difficult explained by Behuniak’s opinion. When facing with the problem, Yang Zebo, who published several books on the study of Mencius theory, argues that, “while the ethical mentality appears to be a strictly situational understanding of moral consciousness, it is also a quiescent orientation that all human beings possess (Young, 2012: 416).”

As for me, it is important to note that there are a thousand Hamlets in a thousand people's eyes. We are not Mencius; thus, we cannot figure out the true meaning of human nature in Mencius’s opinion. However, we could try to understand Mencius based on his situation at that time. Facing with the challenge brought by Yang Zhu and other thinkers’ doctrines of the Individualists, it is necessary for the Confucianism to fight back for the sake of maintain its social status. In this way, Mencius put forwards his theory of human nature. For Mencius, only the people who have four sprouts are treated as human beings, and all the people believe and follow the Confucianism have the four sprouts (Behuniak, 2011).

In conclusion, when it comes to demonstrate the meaning of Mencius’s human nature, it is important to note that there are two senses of human nature, one refers to whatever is inborn, and the other refers to the inborn human characteristic. Meanwhile, Mencius uses the second sense when he argues that goodness is human nature. What is more, based on the opinion of Behuniak, the reason why Mencius puts forwards human nature is to support the claims of Confucius. In addition, a final right answer of the meaning of human nature tends to be impossible, and people tend to have different understanding on different time and place.

51due留学教育原创版权郑重声明：原创essay代写范文源自编辑创作，未经官方许可，网站谢绝转载。对于侵权行为，未经同意的情况下，51Due有权追究法律责任。主要业务有essay代写、assignment代写、paper代写、作业代写服务。

51due为留学生提供最好的essay代写服务，亲们可以进入主页了解和获取更多essay代写范文提供代写服务，详情可以咨询我们的客服QQ：800020041。

0 notes

wineanddinosaur · 5 years

Text

The 18th Century Chemist Who Discovered Oxygen and Changed Champagne and Beer Forever

“Champagne is just wine,” physicist Roberto Zenit said. “What makes it special is the carbonation.”

It’s true: We love our bubbles. In 2017, the world guzzled 544 million bottles ($913 million) of Prosecco, 307 million bottles ($5.6 billion) of Champagne, and approximately 550 billion bottles ($661 billion) of beer.

Although fermentation naturally imparts some carbonation to beer and wine (thanks, yeast!), a majority of bubbly beverages are force-carbonated to achieve a precise gas-to-liquid ratio. Their appeal is a scientific mystery. Like spicy foods, carbonation triggers pain receptors in the brain indicating we should turn away from such aggressive attacks on our palates. “But,” Zenit and Javier Rodríguez-Rodríguez write in a recent study, “humans appear to enjoy the mildly irritating effects.”

Though we may not know why we love spritzy drinks so much, we at least know this: Our current obsession with Spindrift, and much of the world’s thirst for bubbles, is thanks to Joseph Priestley, an 18th-century genius-of-all-trades.

Joseph Priestley’s publication included a how-to diagram for “impregnating water with fixed air.” Source: todayinsci.com

Bubbles: A Brief History

Priestly was a British chemist, theologian, educator, and author who, along with authoring guides to electricity and grammar, and founding Unitarianism, pioneered the scientific study of “airs,” or gases. He is best known for discovering oxygen and inventing carbonated water.

In the early 1770s, Priestley lived near a brewery in Leeds where he conducted various experiments. He noticed that water left above a beer vat acquired a flavor and texture similar to that of mineral spring water, and he called this phenomenon “fixed air.” Though he did not know at the time, fermenting wort was releasing carbon dioxide into the water.

In 1772, Priestley published “Directions for Impregnating Water With Fixed Air,�� illustrating how one might force “fixed air” (carbon dioxide) into water, creating effervescence (carbonation) that mimics mineral springs.

Priestley had no plans for commercializing his discovery of carbonation, but another scientist saw the spritzy liquid’s consumer appeal. His name was Johann Jacob Schweppe, and he founded the Schweppes Company in 1793.

Joseph Priestley, 18th-century chemist and theologist, is known for discovering oxygen and inventing soda water.

Bursts of Joy

Of course, Priestly did not invent bubbles themselves. As early as the 18th century B.C., the “Hymn to Ninkasi” detailed the beer-making process. The earliest chemical evidence of beer was discovered inside 2,500-year-old clay drinking vessels in northern Iraq last year.

And as legend has it, a 17th-century French Benedictine monk tasked with removing excess air from his abbey’s Champagne bottles famously tasted the re-fermented wine and declared, “Come quickly brothers, I am drinking stars!” His name? Dom Perignon, the very monk known for improving the méthode champenoise, as well as becoming the namesake of the eponymous Moët and Chandon tête de cuvée.

Indeed, the world had to wait until 1838 for Cagniard de Latour to discover that yeast adds carbonation to beer, and until the 1850s for yeasts to be understood as microbes responsible for alcoholic fermentation. Until then, brewers and vintners considered fermentation an act of the gods.

But, man-made or magic, the pleasures of bubbles are as mysterious today as their origins were centuries ago. Sometimes the best things come out of thin air.

The post The 18th Century Chemist Who Discovered Oxygen and Changed Champagne and Beer Forever appeared first on VinePair.

source https://vinepair.com/articles/champagne-beer-history-chemistry/

0 notes

maritimemanual · 5 years

Text

10 Unbelievable Facts About The Lost City of Atlantis

The Lost City Of Atlantis has been capturing the imagination of people and researchers for centuries. There are many myths and theories regarding this mysterious city about which there is no historical evidence. Even without no reliable information – written or otherwise, Atlantis has managed to become a part of popular culture.

10 Unbelievable Facts About The Lost City of Atlantis

Here are some of the myths and facts about the lost city of Atlantis.

1. What is the legend of Atlantis?

Plato

The legend of the lost city of Atlantis is one of the most popular and interesting legends of the sea. Atlantis is a possibly fictional island that was initially mentioned in the works of Plato, a Greek philosopher. Plato was known to talk truth about human conditions at his time. All of his works were real and practical. It is due to this reason that some people believe the legend of the lost city of Atlantis to be true even 2,300 years after his death.

The story of Atlantis was first told in around 360 B.C. It was described as a utopian civilization which was created by half God and half humans. Atlantis was a great naval power. It was made of concentric islands which were separated by moats. They were linked together by a canal that stretched till the centre. The islands of Atlantis contained a lot of gold, silver and other precious metals. It was also home to rare wildlife. The capital city lied in the centre of the island.

According to the legend, the city of Atlantis sank into the sea as it was hit by a giant earthquake, volcano or tsunami. Plato stated that Atlantis existed around 9000 years before he was born and that the story had been passed down for generations. However, the only sources of the information about Atlantis available today are Plato’s writings.

2. Location: Where is it situated?

Map of Atlantis

The legend of the lost city of Atlantis has been known for centuries. It is believed that the city of Atlantis sank into the sea as a result of a huge earthquake or tsunami. We know about the glory and the lavishness of the city. What is still unknown to us is where exactly this legendary city was or is situated.

Many theories have been put forward about the location of the city. Some theories say that it was located in the Mediterranean. Some say that it was off the coast of Spain. Some even say that it lies under what we know today as Antarctica. Some say that it lies somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean. Several places like Azores were believed to be the location of Atlantis for many years. Others say that it is present somewhere between Spain and Morocco, in a region called Cadiz. Actually, there is not a single place on earth where Atlantis has not been believed to be located.

The truth is, we do not even know if the city of Atlantis existed for real or if it is just a story. It is one of the greatest mysteries at sea.

The theory of continental drift that started coming to the public in the 1960s also made the chances of the existence of a lost continent geographically bleak.

Still, many people believe in the legend even today.

3. How big was Atlantis?

As one of the biggest mysteries at sea, Atlantis has attained the curiosity of people all over the world. As stated before, the only source of information that we have about Atlantis is whatever Plato had written. Hence, some of the questions that people had have been answered, and some have not. For example, we know how the city of Atlantis came to human knowledge, but we do not know its exact location or size.

According to what Plato wrote thousands of years ago, Atlantis was an island which was larger than Libya and Asia combined. Travelers at that time could get to other islands by crossing Atlantis.

If we consider today’s geography, it is unlikely that Atlantis could be bigger than today’s Libya and Asia together. Many people who believe Atlantis lies somewhere in the Mediterranean Sea say that the island of Atlantis is as big as Crete which is the largest island of Greece.

Atlantis is quite often described as a giant city, but the size of it is not specified correctly. According to some, Atlantis is as large as Eurasia.

Again, we do not know if the city of Atlantis actually existed and so we cannot determine if size. All our information about it comes from mere theories and assumptions.

4. How was Atlantis Built?

Lost City of Atlantis

According to the legend, Poseidon, the god of the sea, storms and earthquakes built the city of Atlantis. This was because he fell in love with a woman named Cleito who was a mortal that is, a human. The city was made on the top of a hill on an island on the sea. The island was completely isolated. Poseidon did so for Cleito’s safety.

It is believed that before Poseidon built the city of Atlantis, he travelled the whole world to find the biggest island ever. When he saw an island, which was the biggest of all (Atlantis), he discovered that the people living on the island were more beautiful and intelligent than the people in the rest of the world. It was on Atlantis that he met and fell in love with Cleito. Cleito later became his wife.

5. The Palace of Captivity

The city of Atlantis was built by Poseidon for Cleito, a human that he had fallen in love with and later married. The city was surrounded by many rings of water as well as land. It is believed that there were five rings of water. Five tunnels connected the water to the land. There was also a huge canal that connected the rings of water to the ocean. These tunnels were so large that they could easily accommodate ships. Every route to the city was guarded. There were gates and towers built to guard the city of Atlantis.

The rings of water were surrounded by tall walls. The walls were built using rocks of red, white and black. They were also decorated with precious metals and stones.

There was a tall hill called the Hill of Cleito. It is believed that Poseidon captivated his wife, Cleito, on the hill which was highly guarded and surrounded by tall pillars and huge moats. He did so because he did not trust Cleito’s loyalty to him.

6. The Statue of Poseidon

Poseidon – the god of the sea, storms and earthquakes built the city of Atlantis.

As stated before, Poseidon built the city of Atlantis for a human that he fell in love with and later married. Poseidon and Cleito had five pairs of sons together. Of the ten sons of Poseidon and Cleito, the eldest one was named Atlas. Atlas later went on to become the first ruler of the city of Atlantis.

Legends said that a temple and a colossal statue of Poseidon was built in the city. The statue was completely built in gold. It showed Poseidon riding a chariot that was being carried by winged horses.

The temple had spirals going as high as the clouds, and the statue was placed at the top of it.

This showed the wealth and glory of the city of Atlantis that may have once existed in reality. The same has been depicted in many books and movies.

7. The Glory of Atlantis

Géza Maróti’s Atlantis City

The city of Atlantis that Poseidon built for his wife was one of its kind. It had a massive statue of Poseidon made of pure gold which demonstrated the wealth that existed in the city.

Half god and half human beings inhabited the city. Atlantis was extremely fertile and beautiful. It is believed that it was a self-sufficient city. People reared animals and cultivated their food. Farmers grew crops in the fertile plains of the beautiful city. There also existed an irrigation system which was quite advanced and ahead of its time. It was also very well maintained.

The architecture in the city was exemplary. Beautiful buildings and other architecture were built using black and red stones and even precious stones and metals.

They had access to the rarest of metals and alloys such as brass. They also used crystals extensively for various purposes like experiments or even just for leisure.

It was indeed an architectural and legendary wonder which is rightly described as a utopian world in many myths.

8. Beliefs about Atlantis

Was Atlantis Built By Aliens?

The legend of Atlantis became so popular that people carried out excursions to find it. It was never really discovered, but many people still believe that it does exist despite geographical theories suggesting otherwise. A researcher named Edgar Caycehead has something very different to say about this. He said that the lost city would rise once again just like the sunrise up. He said that it would rise in the form of new land. He also believes that the souls of the people who once lived in Atlantis would bring in a new era of enlightenment for human consciousness.

Some stories suggest that the people who lived in Atlantis had extra-terrestrial origins and that they came to the earth from the Lyrian star system. They came to the earth about fifty thousand years ago, and they were much taller and fairer than the original inhabitants of the Earth. They could live for as long as 800 years. In simple words, there was a much stronger and longer lasting form of the human race.

Some people also say that the Lost city of Atlantis existed on Mars. It may have also been a colony of an alien civilization. The people of Atlantis had exceptional powers and abilities. For example, they could control the weather, modify volcanic eruptions and could also channel energy from time and space. This could, however, be a myth to explain the lavishness and glorious lifestyle of the people living in Atlantis.

Over the years, historians and archaeologists have given many theories regarding the lost city, but we do not have any evidence to confirm any of these theories.

Many authors have tried to explain their views about Atlantis in their books. They have also been many films that was based on the lost city of Atlantis and what may have happened to it that it sank or rather disappeared. The most popular among these theories is that a natural disaster hit the city like a tsunami, a volcanic eruption or an earthquake.

9. Was Atlantis Real?

Plato was known for writing things that were realistic and practical. Hence, when he wrote about the lost city of Atlantis people believed that this was true as well.

Some people claim that they have the explanation to this legend, but none of these explanations has been proved or accepted yet. An explorer once claimed that a massive volcanic eruption that took place in the past on the island of Santorini, Greece what quite similar to the one mentioned in the legend. He also said that he had studied about an ancient society living on that island which was very advanced and ahead of its time. This was quite similar to the story of Atlantis.

Another explorer confirmed that an island or rather a continent once existed but later disappeared in the exact location that Plato gave as the location of Atlantis.

Several researchers like these claim that Atlantis was indeed a real city.

10. What may have happened to Atlantis?

Many theories exist that try to explain how Atlantis came into being and where it could be located.

Similarly, there are a lot of theories that try to explain what may have happened to Atlantis if it existed.

Some theories say that Atlantis what hit by a natural disaster like an earthquake, a tsunami or a volcanic eruption which resulted in the city sinking under the sea.

Some theories also say that the people living in Atlantis were highly advanced and lived in a utopian civilization, but they soon became greedy and lost common human values. As a result, the gods became angry and punished the people of Atlantis by sending “one terrible night of fire and earthquakes” over the city and eventually destroying it completely.

Despite all this, we know almost nothing about the existence of this legendary city, where it was or is located, how it was destroyed, why it was destroyed and if it existed for real. The lost city of Atlantis will always remain a mystery.

The post 10 Unbelievable Facts About The Lost City of Atlantis appeared first on Maritime Manual.

from WordPress https://www.maritimemanual.com/facts-about-the-lost-city-of-atlantis/

#Maritime News

0 notes