#Azimuth 124 | Explore Tumblr Posts and Blogs

suite43 · 3 years

Note

PS Neither the egg fic nor the vegan freak have anything to do with M/gastar before you try it. That's all pure Starscream stanning, baby. And one of them is St/rop, the supposedly ""good""" ship LOL.

List of female Transformers Main Complete list Following is a thorough list of the various female Transformers in canon thus far. Many of these characters were Japan-exclusive, featured only in fiction, or exist as limited-run exclusive toys. Female characters who had multiple toys are listed only once. Generation 1 (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Chromia (1) Moonracer (2) Firestar (3) Elita One (4) Greenlight (5) Lancer (6) Arcee (7) Beta (8) An Autobot rebel (9) Paradron Medic (11) Nancy (12) Minerva (13) Clipper (14) Karmen (18) Glyph (20) Road Rage (21) Discharge[1] (22) Windy[1] (23) Vibes (24) Roulette (25) Flareup (32) Flip Sides (34) Rosanna (35) Windrazor (38) Thunderblast (46) Cassiopeia (47) Nautica (51) Windblade (52) Victorion (61) Velocity (63) Javelin (62) Proxima (64) Roadmaster (65) Acceleron (66) Override (69) Rust Dust (70) Pyra Magna (71) Skyburst (72) Stormclash (73) Jumpstream (74) Dust Up (75) Scorpia[1] (76) Eos (80) Lifeline (83) Quickslinger (84) Hotwire[2] (98) Strongarm (99) Slide[2] (104) Crush Bull[2] (107) Oiler[2] (108) Broadside[2] (109) Sky High[2] (110) Circuit[2] (116) Pyra Ignatia Spark[2] (118) Scorchfire (122) Orthia (126) Smashdown[2] (128) Esmeral (15) Lyzack (16) Clio (17) Nightracer (19) Shadow Striker (26) Howlback (31) Flamewar (33) Flip Sides (34) Crasher (39) Freezon[1] (44) Nightracer (49) Slipstream (50) Twirl (54) Nickel (60) Swift (77) Killjoy (79) Blackout[2] (81) Spaceshot[2] (82) Crash Test (85) Trickdiamond (92) Moonheart (93) Megaempress (94) Flowspade (95) Lunaclub (96) Megatronia (100) Buckethead[1] (103) Diveplane[1] (112) Seawave[1] (113) Mindgame (114) Tracer[2] (115) Devastator[2] (117) Cindersaur[2] (125) Shadow Striker (127) Nova Storm[2] (129) Termagax (133) Kaskade (135) Heavywait (138) Tyrannocon Rex (139) Cheesecake robot (10) Roulette and Shadow Striker's sister (27) Path Finder (28) Small Foot (29) Devcon's galpal (30) One of Optimus Prime's rescuees (36) Angela (37) Four members of the Kaon upperclass (40-43) Ma-Grrr (45) Red waitress Transformer (48) Windshear (53) Solus Prime (55) Female protester (56) Lightbright (57) Strafe (58) Mistress of Flame (59) Exocet (67) Vertex (68) Aileron (78) Gnash (86) Slice (87) Thrashclaw (88) Shred (89) A pair of Devisen twins (90-91) Maxima (97) Sieg[3] (101) Kari (102) Anode (105) Lug (106) X-Throttle (111) Rum-Maj (119) Praesidia Magna (120) Fastbreak (121) Crash Test (122) Stardrive (123) Magrada (124) Leviathan (130) Codexa (131) Gauge (132) Lodestar (134) Shutter (136) Sharpclaw (137) Cargohold (140) Half-qualifiers: Alana, turned into a Transformer for a short time. Aunty, female Cybertronian intelligent computer. Combination granny and attack-dog-bots, human-sized drones supposedly based on Transformer technology. One of Maccadam's bartenders Nightbird Overlord, has a female side to him. Some of the "Teletraan" computers like 15 and 10 are female. There appears to be a female design among a group of old generics. Bayonet, the fake female Decepticon disguise of Britt. In the French dub of The Transformers: The Movie, Shrapnel and Starscream are considered female. Shrapnel is also female in the Russian dub. Beast Era (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Airazor (2) Kitte Shūshū (5) Rage (6) Botanica (7) Sonar[1] (13) Crystal Widow (14) Crossblades (15) Stiletto (16) Transmutate[1] (18) Binary (19) Wedge Shape[1] (24) Aura (25) Legend Convoy[1] (26) Stockade[2] (28) Rav (29) Hammerstrike[2] (31) Triceradon[2] (35) Skimmer (36) Nyx (44) Blackarachnia (1) Scylla (3) Antagony (4) Strika (8) Manta Ray[1] (17) Ser-Ket (20) Dead-End[2] (27) Jai-Alai (30) Max-B[2] (32) Gaidora (33) Soundbyte/Soundbite (34) Liftoff (37) Freefall (38) Snarl-blast[2] (39) Vertebreak (43) Skold (45) Libras (9) Virgol (10) Cancix[1] (11) Possibly Sagittarii (12) Dipole (21) Vamp (22) Plasma[2] (23) Deep Blue (40) At least two bridge officers of the Terrastar (41-42) Half-qualifiers: NAVI-ko, female Cybertronian intelligent computer NAVI (Yukikaze), female Cybertronian intelligent computer NAVI (Gung Ho), female Cybertronian

intelligent computer DNAVI, female Cybertronian intelligent computer Medusa, an Intruder-built robot modified with Cybertronian technology Robots in Disguise (2001) (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Optimus Prime[2] (1) Nightcruz[1] (3) Scourge[2] (2) Half-qualifiers: T-AI, female Cybertronian intelligent computer. Unicron Trilogy (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Airazor (5) Arcee (9) Autobot nurses (10) Two Velocitronian band members (11-12) Override[4] (13) Joyride[4] (15) Quickslinger (16) Crystal Widow (24) Treadbolt (33) Chromia (34) Thunderblast (14) Spacewarp (30) Sureshock (1) Combusta (2) Falcia (3) Twirl (4) Sunburn (6) Cliffjumper[1] (7) Ironhide[1] (8) Spiral[1] (9) Offshoot[1] (17) Breakage[1] (18) Kickflip[1] (19) Mudbath[1] (20) Heavy Metal[1] (21) "Disco ball" (22) Road Rebel[1] (23) Guardian Speed[1] (25) Mugen[1] (26) Bingo/Triac[1] (27) Wedge Shape[1] (28) Sprite (29) Boom Tube (31) Windrazor (32) Rán (33) Half-qualifiers: A possible scooterformer Dark Nitro Convoy, evil clone of a character whose gender was switched in translation Red Alert, minimally-altered release of a toy that was female in Japan Midnight Express, unaltered release of a toy that was female in Japan Hourglass, a female character who might be a Cybertronian Bombshell, a female character who might be a Cybertronian Carillon, a female character who might be a Cybertronian Vector Prime, the former multiversal entity who was female in some universes Movie continuity family (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Arcee (1) Elita-One (2) Chromia (4) Perihelion (8) HMS Alliance (9) Windblade (13) Fracture (3) Alice (5) Shadow Striker (6) Override[3] (7) Diabla (10) Howlback (11) Shatter (12) Nightbird Airazor Half-qualifiersJetfire claims to have a mother who may or may not have been a Transformer. Animated (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Sari Sumdac (2) Arcee (3) Elita-1 (4) Red Alert (6) Botanica (8) Flareup (10) Rosanna (11) Glyph (12) Lickety-Split (13) Lightbright (14) Chromia (16) Clipper (17) Quickslinger (18) Kappa Supreme (19) Override Prime (20) Windy (21) Road Rage (25) Flashpoint (26) Minerva (27) Sureshock (28) Nightbeat (29) Sunstreaker (30) Blackarachnia (1) Slipstream (5) Strika (7) Flip Sides (9) Antagony (15) Wingthing (22) Beta (23) Drag Strip (24) Half-qualifiers: Teletran-1, female Cybertronian intelligent computer TransTech (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Blackarachnia (5) Strika (3) Unnamed medic (1) Andromeda (2) Cyclis (4) Sonar (6) Hammerstrike (7) Scorpia (8) Proxima (9) Half-qualifiers: Axiom Nexus News Editor, a 'bot with one male and one female personality Shattered Glass (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Crasher (1) Esmeral (6) Howlback (7) Arcee (2) Andromeda (3) Elita-One (4) Strongarm (8) Windblade (9) Nautica (10) Beta (5) Half-qualifiers: Teletraan-X, female Cybertronian intelligent computer. Aligned continuity family (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Akiba Prime Arc Arcee Arcee Blade Assault Star Brushfire Cameo Catapult Chevalier Chromia Deep Blue Ether Walker Firestar Galaxy Flare Galaxy 'Questrian Glow Matronly Docent Quickshadow Rocket Plume Solus Prime Strongarm Tempest Spin Thunderclap Upkeep Windblade Airachnid Astraea Aurora Speeder Balewing Coldstar Crimson Phantom Cyberwarp Cyclone Dancer Diabla Duststorm Fallen Angel Filch Flamewar Flash Runner Glowstrike Hoverbolt Helter-Skelter Hurricane Hunter Ida Lensflare Metal Thunder Nebula Ripper Night Dancer Overhead Retrofit Rollcage Scatterspike Skyjack Slink Slipstream Spiral Zealot Supernova Flame Variable Star Void Pulse Zizza Ser-Ket Ripclaw Azimuth Cogwheel Elita One Mercury Moonracer Nightra Override Bot Shots (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Buzzclaw (1) Kre-O (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Chromia (1) Arcee (3) Strika (4) Minerva (5) Windblade (6) Paradron Medic (10) Strongarm (12) Skimmer[1] (13) Airachnid (2) Thunderblast (7) Blackarachnia (8) Slipstrike (9) Ida (11) Liftoff[1] (14) Freefall[1] (15) Angry Birds Transformers (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Stella as:Arcee

(1) Airachnid (2) Chromia (4) Novastar (10) Moonracer (11) Greenlight (12) Silver as:Windblade (3) Energon Windblade (5) Elita-One (8) Matilda as:Energon Nautica (6) Nautica (7) Strongarm (9) Zeta as:Nightbird (13) Rosanna (15) Zeta as:Slipstream (14) Cyberverse (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Arcee Chromia Clobber Jazz[3] Windblade Alpha Strike Nova Storm Shadow Striker Skywarp Slipstream Blackarachnia Cosmos Operatus Solus Prime Half-qualifiers: In the Japanese dub of Cyberverse, Thrust was female, and went by the name Red Wing. Acid Storm fluctuates between the male and female Seeker body types in show. Mae Catt would explain this on Twitter as this being "just something Acid Storm likes to do" and that pronouns are "up to Acid Storm". This would imply Acid Storm is non-binary gender fluid, thus they semi-qualify for the list. BotBots (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Aday Angry Cheese Arctic Guzzlerush Bankshot Big Cantuna Bok Bok Bok-O Bonz-Eye Bot-T-Builder Bottocorrect Bratworst Brock Head Chef Nada Clawsome Crabby Grabby Cuddletooth Dingledeedoo Disaster Master Disgusto Desserto DJ Fudgey Fresh Doctor Flicker Drama Sauce Drillit Yaself Face Ace Fail Polish Fit Ness Monster Flare Devil Flood Jug Fomo Frohawk Frostfetti Frostyface Glam Glare Fancy Flare Glitch Face Goggly Spy P.I. Gold Dexter Goldface Goldiebites Goldie Terrortwirl Goldito Favrito Goldpin Baller Gold Punch Grampiano Grandma Crinkles Grave Rave The Great Mumbo Bumblo Greeny Rex Grrr'illa Grimes Halloween Knight Handy Dandy Hashtagz Hawt Diggity Hawt Mess Highroller Hiptoast Ice Sight Javasaurus Rex Jet Setter Knotzel Latte Spice Whirl Leafmeat Alone Loadoutsky Lolly Licks Lolly Mints Miss Mixed Movie Munchster Ms. Take Must Turd Nanny McBag Nomaste Nope Soap Ol' Tic Toc Ollie Bite Outta Order Overpack Pop N. Lock Pop O' Gold Pressure Punk Professor Scope Rebugnant Roarista Sandy Shades Scribby Sheriff Sugarfeet Shifty Gifty Sippyberry Sippy Slurps Skippy Dippy Disc Slappyhappy Smooth Shaker Smore N' More Sour Wing Starscope Sticky McGee Sugar Saddle Super Bubs Sweet Cheat Technotic Sonic Terror Tale Torch Tidy Trunksky Tricitrustops Tropic Guzzlerush Tutu Puffz Twerple Burple Unilla Icequeencone Venus Frogtrap Vigitente Waddlepop Wasabi Breath Whirlderful Whoopsie Cushion Wristocrat

#really long post #red.reply #spamguy

33 notes · View notes

cresy · 3 years

Text

IL CALENDARIO SAGGIO

CercaCerca 📅 Oggi è giovedì 27 maggio 2021🌞Il Sole sorge alle 05:39 e tramonta alle 20:35. Il culmine è alle 13:07. Durata del giorno 14 ore e 56 minuti.🌝La Luna prima tramonta alle 06:19 (azimuth 238°) e poi sorge alle 22:08 (azimuth 124°). Fase Lunare: Luna Piena. Visibile al: 99%. Età della Luna: 15,53 giorni. La prossima luna piena ci sarà il 24 giugno.😇Santi del 27 maggio: Sant’Agostino di…

View On WordPress

#CALENDARIO

0 notes

yhwhrulz · 3 years

Text

0 notes

automaticvr · 4 years

Video

THE NIGHT-MERMAID Film by and starring in: Penumbra Carter 2020 Filmed in Second Life at: Blake Sea - Swab (45, 241, 10) Blake Sea - Azimuth (157, 167, 7) Blake Sea - China (230, 153, 3) Blake Sea - Sirens Isle (236, 33, 8) Blake Sea - Jones Locker (134, 87, 17) The Citadel, Nautilus - Hannibal (247, 4, 11) Protected Land, Nautilus - Byth (151, 193, 18) The Leviathan Skeleton, Ahab's Haunt (124, 162, 10) Blake Sea - Indian (134, 88, 20) Glacis Isle (124, 113, 4) Anse Etoile Isle (127, 115, 2) Coastal Waterway, Sieraf (85, 116, 7) Coastal Waterway, Leoming (78, 124, 5) Attachments to Mermaid Mermaid Tail by MW Boa Tala AO(5Joints) by Bet (bet.quinote) flexi sleeve l upper arm by Mystygry Mirihi Tidal~ Smooth Glider Fin - Lace - BLUE by Graea AVZ ~ Parallel Hair (Platinum) by Hern Worsley virus face mask (breath) by Dekka Raymaker Ventilator,ball/stick molecule crown,cockroach sailing boat and corona virus by Penumbra Carter Sounds Used With Permissions Arpeggiator End Credits .wav by lharman94 strings 19 by Hoerspielwerkstatt_HEF Cinematic Soundtrack Test by BeatArchive C#m7 to C#7 11.wav by esistnichtsoernst Wide Cinematic Anxious Drone by Free-Rush charade 1Q62b by Setuniman Atmospheric Piano & Violin Music 01 by Magmi. Soundtracks Cinematic Bass Swell (C) by PicturEsqueSound KRUCIFIX PRODUCTIONS CINEMATIC SOUND SADNESS 2018.wav by Krucifix444

#Vimeo

0 notes

awesomelegendaryllamabouque-blog · 6 years

Text

Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani Wolf

This is Full Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition Charles D. Ghilani and Wolf

Click link bellow to view sample:

http://digitalcontentmarket.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Solution-Manual-for-Elementary-Surveying-An-Introduction-to-Geomatics-13th-Edition-Charles-D-Ghilani.pdf

Origin Book information:

ISBN-10: 0132554348

ISBN-13: 978-0132554343 9780132554343

Full download link: Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani Wolf

http://digitalcontentmarket.org/download/solution-manual-for-elementary-surveying-an-introduction-to-geomatics-13th-edition-charles-d-ghilani

You will be guided to the product download page immediately once you complete the payment.If you have any questions, or would like a receive a sample chapter before your purchase, please contact us via email :

[email protected]

Table of Contents

1 • INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Definition of Surveying 1 1.2 Geomatics 3 1.3 History of Surveying 4 1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 9 1.5 Importance of Surveying 10 1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 11 1.7 Surveying Safety 13 1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 14 1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 15 1.10 The Surveying Profession 16 1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 17 1.12 Surveying on the Internet 18 1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 19 Problems 20 Bibliography 21

2 • UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES 23 PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Units of Measurement 23 2.3 International System of Units (SI) 25 2.4 Significant Figures 27 2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 29 PART II FIELD NOTES 30 2.6 Field Notes 30 2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 31 2.8 Types of Field Books 32 2.9 Kinds of Notes 33 2.10 Arrangements of Notes 33 2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 35 2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 36 2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 39 2.14 Digital Data File Management 41 2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors 42 Problems 43 Bibliography 44

3 • THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 45 3.3 Errors in Measurements 46 3.4 Mistakes 46 3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 47 3.6 Types of Errors 47 3.7 Precision and Accuracy 48 3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 49 3.9 Probability 49 3.10 Most Probable Value 50 3.11 Residuals 51 3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 51 3.13 General Laws of Probability 55 3.14 Measures of Precision 55 3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 58 3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 58 3.17 Error Propagation 60 3.18 Applications 65 3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 65 3.20 Weights of Observations 66 3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 67 3.22 Using Software 68 Problems 69 Bibliography 71

4 • LEVELING–THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT 73 PART I LEVELING–THEORY AND METHODS 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Definitions 73 4.3 North American Vertical Datum 75 4.4 Curvature and Refraction 76 4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 78 PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING 85 4.6 Categories of Levels 85 4.7 Telescopes 86 4.8 Level Vials 87 4.9 Tilting Levels 89 4.10 Automatic Levels 90 4.11 Digital Levels 91 4.12 Tripods 93 4.13 Hand Level 93 4.14 Level Rods 94 4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 96 Problems 100 Bibliography 102

5 • LEVELING–FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 103 5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 105 5.4 Differential Leveling 106 5.5 Precision 112 5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 113 5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 114 5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 115 5.9 Profile Leveling 117 5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 121 5.11 Use of the Hand Level 122 5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 122 5.13 Mistakes 124 5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 125 5.15 Using Software 125 Problems 127 Bibliography 129

6 • DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 131 PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 131 6.3 Pacing 132 6.4 Odometer Readings 132 6.5 Optical Rangefinders 133 6.6 Tacheometry 133 6.7 Subtense Bar 133 PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING 133 6.8 Introduction to Taping 133 6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 134 6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 135 6.11 Taping on Level Ground 136 6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 138 6.13 Slope Measurements 140 6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 141 6.15 Tape Problems 145 6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem 147 PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 148 6.17 Introduction 148 6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 149 6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 152 6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 153 6.21 Total Station Instruments 156 6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 157 6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 158 6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 160 6.25 Using Software 165 Problems 165 Bibliography 168

7 • ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 169 7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 170 7.4 Direction of a Line 171 7.5 Azimuths 172 7.6 Bearings 173 7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 174 7.8 Computing Azimuths 175 7.9 Computing Bearings 177 7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field 179 7.11 Magnetic Declination 180 7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 181 7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 183 7.14 Local Attraction 184 7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 185 7.16 Mistakes 187 Problems 187 Bibliography 189

8 • TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 191 PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS 191 8.1 Introduction 191 8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 191 8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 194 8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 195 8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 199 8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments 201 PART II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 203 8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 203 8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 204 8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 206 8.10 Closing the Horizon 207 8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 209 8.12 Observing Azimuths 211 8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 211 8.14 Sights and Marks 213 8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 214 8.16 Balancing-In 216 8.17 Random Traverse 217 8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 218 8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 219 8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 222 8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 228 8.22 Mistakes 228 Problems 229 Bibliography 230

9 • TRAVERSING 231 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 233 9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 234 9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 235 9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 235 9.6 Traverse Field Notes 237 9.7 Angle Misclosure 238 9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 239 9.9 Radial Traversing 240 9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 241 9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 242 Problems 242

10 • TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS 245 10.1 Introduction 245 10.2 Balancing Angles 246 10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 248 10.4 Departures and Latitudes 249 10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 251 10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 251 10.7 Traverse Adjustment 252 10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 255 10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 256 10.10 Inversing 260 10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 261 10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 263 10.13 Use of Open Traverses 265 10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 268 10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 269 10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 269 10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 272 Problems 272 Bibliography 275

11 • COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS 277 11.1 Introduction 277 11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles 278 11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 280 11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions 282 11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 284 11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 287 11.7 Three-Point Resection 289 11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 292 11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 297 11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 299 11.11 Software 302 Problems 303 Bibliography 307

12 • AREA 309 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 309 12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures 310 12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 311 12.5 Area by Coordinates 313 12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 317 12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 320 12.8 Partitioning of Lands 321 12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 325 12.10 Software 327 12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 328 12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 328 Problems 328 Bibliography 330

13 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 331 13.1 Introduction 331 13.2 Overview of GPS 332 13.3 The GPS Signal 335 13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 337 13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 345 13.6 Errors in Observations 348 13.7 Differential Positioning 356 13.8 Kinematic Methods 358 13.9 Relative Positioning 359 13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems 362 13.11 The Future 364 Problems 365 Bibliography 366

14 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—STATIC SURVEYS 367 14.1 Introduction 367 14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys 369 14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys 372 14.4 Performing Static Surveys 384 14.5 Data Processing and Analysis 386 14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys 393 14.7 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys 395 Problems 395 Bibliography 397

15 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—KINEMATIC SURVEYS 399 15.1 Introduction 399 15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys 400 15.3 Initialization 402 15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys 403 15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys 405 15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys 408 15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 411 15.8 Real-Time Networks 412 15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 413 15.10 Machine Control 414 15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys 418 15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys 418 Problems 418 Bibliography 419

16 • ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES 421 16.1 Introduction 421 16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares 423 16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method 424 16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment 428 16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities 430 16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits 432 16.7 Propagation of Errors 436 16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors 437 16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys 443 16.10 The Error Ellipse 452 16.11 Adjustment Procedures 457 16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations 458 16.13 Software 460 16.14 Conclusions 460 Problems 461 Bibliography 466

17 • MAPPING SURVEYS 467 17.1 Introduction 467 17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys 468 17.3 Map Scale 468 17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys 470 17.5 Contours 471 17.6 Characteristics of Contours 474 17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours 474 17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems 477 17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details 479 17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 488 17.11 Selection of Field Method 489 17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software 490 17.13 Hydrographic Surveys 493 17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys 497 17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys 498 Problems 498 Bibliography 500

18 • MAPPING 503 18.1 Introduction 503 18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information 504 18.3 National Mapping Program 505 18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping 505 18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures 507 18.6 Map Design 508 18.7 Map Layout 510 18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures 512 18.9 Contour Interval 514 18.10 Plotting Contours 514 18.11 Lettering 515 18.12 Cartographic Map Elements 516 18.13 Drafting Materials 519 18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems 519 18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping 525 18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping 526 18.17 Mistakes in Mapping 526 Problems 526 Bibliography 528

19 • CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS 529 19.1 Introduction 529 19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid 530 19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole 532 19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature 534 19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical 536 19.6 U.S. Reference Frames 538 19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys 547 19.8 The National Spatial Reference System 550 19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network 550 19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network 551 19.11 Control Point Descriptions 551 19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys 554 19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys 559 19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values 564 19.15 Geodetic Position Computations 577 19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System 580 19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations 581 19.18 Software 584 Problems 584 Bibliography 587

20 • STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS 589 20.1 Introduction 589 20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems 590 20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 593 20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection 594 20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 595 20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System 596 20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System 601 20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids 608 20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations 617 20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another 620 20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83 621 20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 622 20.13 Other Map Projections 623 20.14 Map Projection Software 627 Problems 628 Bibliography 631

21 • BOUNDARY SURVEYS 633 21.1 Introduction 633 21.2 Categories of Land Surveys 634 21.3 Historical Perspectives 635 21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds 636 21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System 639 21.6 Property Description by Coordinates 641 21.7 Retracement Surveys 641 21.8 Subdivision Surveys 644 21.9 Partitioning Land 646 21.10 Registration of Title 647 21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements 648 21.12 Condominium Surveys 648 21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems 655 21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys 655 21.15 Mistakes 655 Problems 656 Bibliography 658

22 • SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS 659 22.1 Introduction 659 22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands 660 22.3 Initial Point 663 22.4 Principal Meridian 664 22.5 Baseline 665 22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) 666 22.7 Guide Meridians 666 22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines 667 22.9 Designation of Townships 668 22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships 668 22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections 670 22.12 Subdivision of Sections 671 22.13 Fractional Sections 672 22.14 Notes 672 22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps 672 22.16 Marking Corners 674 22.17 Witness Corners 674 22.18 Meander Corners 675 22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners 675 22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys 678 22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision 678 22.22 BLM Land Information System 679 22.23 Sources of Error 680 22.24 Mistakes 680 Problems 681 Bibliography 683

23 • CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS 685 23.1 Introduction 685 23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys 686 23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 689 23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline 691 23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades 692 23.6 Staking Out a Building 694 23.7 Staking Out Highways 698 23.8 Other Construction Surveys 703 23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments 704 23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment 706 23.11 Machine Guidance and Control 709 23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning 710 23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys 711 23.14 Mistakes 712 Problems 712 Bibliography 714

24 • HORIZONTAL CURVES 715 24.1 Introduction 715 24.2 Degree of Circular Curve 716 24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas 718 24.4 Circular Curve Stationing 720 24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles 721 24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords 723 24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 725 24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 726 24.9 Setups on Curve 727 24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 728 24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords 730 24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve 731 24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates 733 24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations 738 24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets 739 24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems 742 24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves 743 24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 743 24.19 Spirals 744 24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments 749 24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves 752 24.22 Mistakes 752 Problems 753 Bibliography 755

25 • VERTICAL CURVES 757 25.1 Introduction 757 25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve 758 25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve 759 25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 761 25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation 761 25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola 765 25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion 766 25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve 766 25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations 767 25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve 767 25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point 770 25.12 Sight Distance 771 25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves 773 25.14 Mistakes 774 Problems 774 Bibliography 776

26 • VOLUMES 777 26.1 Introduction 777 26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement 777 26.3 The Cross-Section Method 778 26.4 Types of Cross Sections 779 26.5 Average-End-Area Formula 780 26.6 Determining End Areas 781 26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts 784 26.8 Prismoidal Formula 786 26.9 Volume Computations 788 26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method 790 26.11 Contour-Area Method 791 26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge 793 26.13 Software 794 26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes 795 26.15 Mistakes 795 Problems 795 Bibliography 798

27 • PHOTOGRAMMETRY 799 27.1 Introduction 799 27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry 800 27.3 Aerial Cameras 801 27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs 803 27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs 804 27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph 806 27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph 810 27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph 811 27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph 813 27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax 814 27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing 817 27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax 819 27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry 820 27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments 821 27.15 Orthophotos 826 27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry 827 27.17 Flight Planning 828 27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems 830 27.19 Remote Sensing 831 27.20 Software 837 27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry 838 27.22 Mistakes 838 Problems 839 Bibliography 842

28 • INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 843 28.1 Introduction 843 28.2 Land Information Systems 846 28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications 846 28.4 Spatial Data 846 28.5 Nonspatial Data 852 28.6 Data Format Conversions 853 28.7 Creating GIS Databases 856 28.8 Metadata 862 28.9 GIS Analytical Functions 862 28.10 GIS Applications 867 28.11 Data Sources 867 Problems 869 Bibliography 871

APPENDIX A • DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES 873 APPENDIX B • EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS 888 APPENDIX C • ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS 895 APPENDIX D • USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE 911 APPENDIX E • INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES 917 APPENDIX F • U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS 923 APPENDIX G • ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 927 INDEX 933

Relate keywords

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition solutions pdf

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition pdf download

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics thirteenth edition

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition answers

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition solutions

elementary surveying - an introduction to geomatics 13th ed

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition solutions manual

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition pdf solutions

0 notes

getmarketresearch · 7 years

Text

Azimuth Thrusters Market,Forecast to 2022

An azimuth thruster is a configuration of marine propellers placed in pods that can be rotated to any horizontal angle (azimuth), making a rudder unnecessary. These give ships better maneuverability than a fixed propeller and rudder system.

Date Published: 2017/08/24

Region: Global

Delivery Format: PDF

Pages: 124

Category: Equipments

Scope of the Report:

This report focuses on the Azimuth…

View On WordPress

#Azimuth Thrusters Market data #Azimuth Thrusters Market discount #Azimuth Thrusters Market industrial analysis #Azimuth Thrusters Market research reports #Azimuth Thrusters Market resources #Azimuth Thrusters Market risk #Azimuth Thrusters Market samples #Azimuth Thrusters Market share #Azimuth Thrusters Market trends #Global Azimuth Thrusters Market

0 notes

theprimeproject-blog1 · 7 years

Text

Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani

This is Full Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition Charles D. Ghilani

Click link bellow to view sample:

https://getbooksolutions.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Solution-Manual-for-Elementary-Surveying-An-Introduction-to-Geomatics-13th-Edition-Charles-D-Ghilani.pdf

Origin Book information:

Charles D. Ghilani

Hardcover: 984 pages

Publisher: Prentice Hall; 13 edition (January 8, 2011)

Language: English

ISBN-10: 0132554348

ISBN-13: 978-0132554343

what is solution manual elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition where you can download solution manual elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition? and how you can get solution manual elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition in fastest way?

You will be guided to the product download page immediately once you complete the payment. If you have any questions, or would like a receive a sample chapter before your purchase, please contact us via email :

[email protected]

Full download link:

https://getbooksolutions.com/download/solution-manual-for-elementary-surveying-an-introduction-to-geomatics-13th-edition-charles-d-ghilani

Table of Contents

#13th editor charles #elementary surveying #Ghilani #Introduction to Geomatics

0 notes

foulposti-blog · 7 years

Text

Download Solution manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 14th Edition

Solution manual for Elementary Surveying 14th Edition by Charles D. Ghilani, Paul R. Wolf

Solution manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 14th Edition

This is completed downloadable link for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 14th Edition Solution manual

Click here to download sample of Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 14th Edition Solution manual

The full solutions manual, answers for chapter list:

1 – Introduction 1 2 – Units, Significant Figures,and Field Notes 22 3 – Theory of Errors in Observations 45 4 – Leveling-Theory, Methods,and Equipment 71 5 – Leveling-Field Procedures and Computations 100 6 – Distance Measurement 124 7 – Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings 162 8 – Total Station Instruments: Angle Measurements 182 9 – Traversing 222 10 – Traverse Computations 235 11 – Coordinate Geometry inSurveying Calculations 265 12 – Area 296 13 – The Global Positioning System-Introduction and Principlesof Operation 318 14 – The Global PositioningSystem-Static surveys 354 15 – The Global PositioningSystem-Kinematic GPS 385 16 – Adjustments by Least Squares 404 17 – Mapping Surveys 450 18 – Mapping 488 19 – Control Surveys and GeodeticReductions 514 20 – State Plane Coordinates 571 21 – Boundary Surveys 612 22 – Surveys of the Public Lands 638 23 – Construction Surveys 663 24 – Horizontal Curves 693 25 – Vertical Curves 734 26 – Volumes 753 27 – Photogrammetry 773 28 – Introduction to Geographic Information Systems 818

Some informations about original book:

ISBN-13: 000-0133758885

ISBN-10: 0133758885

Link download full: https://getbooksolutions.com/download/solution-manual-for-elementary-surveying-14th-edition/

Elementary Surveying, Fourteenth Edition, is ideal for Surveying courses offered in Civil Engineering departments and is a useful reference for civil engineers.

This highly readable, best-selling text presents basic concepts and practical material in each of the areas fundamental to modern surveying (geomatics) practice. Its depth and breadth are ideal for self-study. Elementary Surveying, Fourteenth Edition, is updated throughout to reflect the latest advances and technology.

#elementary #surveying #Ghilani #Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics #Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 14th Edition

0 notes

thorsenmark · 2 months

Video

flickr

It Isn't Hard to Imagine a Beautiful Place in Capitol Reef National Park by Mark Stevens Via Flickr: While walking the Chimney Rock Trail with a view looking to the southeast while on a morning hike in Capitol Reef National Park.

0 notes

yourgetbooksolutionsblog-blog · 7 years

Text

Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition Charles D. Ghilani

This is Full Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition Charles D. Ghilani

Click link bellow to view sample:

https://getbooksolutions.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Solution-Manual-for-Elementary-Surveying-An-Introduction-to-Geomatics-13th-Edition-Charles-D-Ghilani.pdf

Origin Book information:

Charles D. Ghilani

Hardcover: 984 pages

Publisher: Prentice Hall; 13 edition (January 8, 2011)

Language: English

ISBN-10: 0132554348

ISBN-13: 978-0132554343

what is solution manual elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition

where you can download solution manual elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition?

and how you can get solution manual elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition in fastest way?

[email protected]

Full download link:

https://getbooksolutions.com/download/solution-manual-for-elementary-surveying-an-introduction-to-geomatics-13th-edition-charles-d-ghilani

Table of Contents

1 • INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Definition of Surveying 1

1.2 Geomatics 3

1.3 History of Surveying 4

1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 9

1.5 Importance of Surveying 10

1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 11

1.7 Surveying Safety 13

1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 14

1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 15

1.10 The Surveying Profession 16

1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 17

1.12 Surveying on the Internet 18

1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 19

Problems 20

Bibliography 21

2 • UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES 23

PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 23

2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 Units of Measurement 23

2.3 International System of Units (SI) 25

2.4 Significant Figures 27

2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 29

PART II FIELD NOTES 30

2.6 Field Notes 30

2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 31

2.8 Types of Field Books 32

2.9 Kinds of Notes 33

2.10 Arrangements of Notes 33

2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 35

2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 36

2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 39

2.14 Digital Data File Management 41

2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors 42

Problems 43

Bibliography 44

3 • THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS 45

3.1 Introduction 45

3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 45

3.3 Errors in Measurements 46

3.4 Mistakes 46

3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 47

3.6 Types of Errors 47

3.7 Precision and Accuracy 48

3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 49

3.9 Probability 49

3.10 Most Probable Value 50

3.11 Residuals 51

3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 51

3.13 General Laws of Probability 55

3.14 Measures of Precision 55

3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 58

3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 58

3.17 Error Propagation 60

3.18 Applications 65

3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 65

3.20 Weights of Observations 66

3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 67

3.22 Using Software 68

Problems 69

Bibliography 71

4 • LEVELING–THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT 73

PART I LEVELING–THEORY AND METHODS 73

4.1 Introduction 73

4.2 Definitions 73

4.3 North American Vertical Datum 75

4.4 Curvature and Refraction 76

4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 78

PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING 85

4.6 Categories of Levels 85

4.7 Telescopes 86

4.8 Level Vials 87

4.9 Tilting Levels 89

4.10 Automatic Levels 90

4.11 Digital Levels 91

4.12 Tripods 93

4.13 Hand Level 93

4.14 Level Rods 94

4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 96

Problems 100

Bibliography 102

5 • LEVELING–FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS 103

5.1 Introduction 103

5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 103

5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 105

5.4 Differential Leveling 106

5.5 Precision 112

5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 113

5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 114

5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 115

5.9 Profile Leveling 117

5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 121

5.11 Use of the Hand Level 122

5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 122

5.13 Mistakes 124

5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 125

5.15 Using Software 125

Problems 127

Bibliography 129

6 • DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 131

PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES 131

6.1 Introduction 131

6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 131

6.3 Pacing 132

6.4 Odometer Readings 132

6.5 Optical Rangefinders 133

6.6 Tacheometry 133

6.7 Subtense Bar 133

PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING 133

6.8 Introduction to Taping 133

6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 134

6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 135

6.11 Taping on Level Ground 136

6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 138

6.13 Slope Measurements 140

6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 141

6.15 Tape Problems 145

6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem 147

PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 148

6.17 Introduction 148

6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 149

6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 152

6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 153

6.21 Total Station Instruments 156

6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 157

6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 158

6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 160

6.25 Using Software 165

Problems 165

Bibliography 168

7 • ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS 169

7.1 Introduction 169

7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 169

7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 170

7.4 Direction of a Line 171

7.5 Azimuths 172

7.6 Bearings 173

7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 174

7.8 Computing Azimuths 175

7.9 Computing Bearings 177

7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field 179

7.11 Magnetic Declination 180

7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 181

7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 183

7.14 Local Attraction 184

7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 185

7.16 Mistakes 187

Problems 187

Bibliography 189

8 • TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 191

PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS 191

8.1 Introduction 191

8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 191

8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 194

8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 195

8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 199

8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments 201

PART II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 203

8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 203

8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 204

8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 206

8.10 Closing the Horizon 207

8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 209

8.12 Observing Azimuths 211

8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 211

8.14 Sights and Marks 213

8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 214

8.16 Balancing-In 216

8.17 Random Traverse 217

8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 218

8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 219

8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 222

8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 228

8.22 Mistakes 228

Problems 229

Bibliography 230

9 • TRAVERSING 231

9.1 Introduction 231

9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 233

9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 234

9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 235

9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 235

9.6 Traverse Field Notes 237

9.7 Angle Misclosure 238

9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 239

9.9 Radial Traversing 240

9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 241

9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 242

Problems 242

10 • TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS 245

10.1 Introduction 245

10.2 Balancing Angles 246

10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 248

10.4 Departures and Latitudes 249

10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 251

10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 251

10.7 Traverse Adjustment 252

10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 255

10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 256

10.10 Inversing 260

10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 261

10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 263

10.13 Use of Open Traverses 265

10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 268

10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 269

10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 269

10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 272

Problems 272

Bibliography 275

11 • COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS 277

11.1 Introduction 277

11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles 278

11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 280

11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions 282

11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 284

11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 287

11.7 Three-Point Resection 289

11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 292

11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 297

11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 299

11.11 Software 302

Problems 303

Bibliography 307

12 • AREA 309

12.1 Introduction 309

12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 309

12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures 310

12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 311

12.5 Area by Coordinates 313

12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 317

12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 320

12.8 Partitioning of Lands 321

12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 325

12.10 Software 327

12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 328

12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 328

Problems 328

Bibliography 330

13 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 331

13.1 Introduction 331

13.2 Overview of GPS 332

13.3 The GPS Signal 335

13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 337

13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 345

13.6 Errors in Observations 348

13.7 Differential Positioning 356

13.8 Kinematic Methods 358

13.9 Relative Positioning 359

13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems 362

13.11 The Future 364

Problems 365

Bibliography 366

14 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—STATIC SURVEYS 367

14.1 Introduction 367

14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys 369

14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys 372

14.4 Performing Static Surveys 384

14.5 Data Processing and Analysis 386

14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys 393

14.7 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys 395

Problems 395

Bibliography 397

15 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—KINEMATIC SURVEYS 399

15.1 Introduction 399

15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys 400

15.3 Initialization 402

15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys 403

15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys 405

15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys 408

15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 411

15.8 Real-Time Networks 412

15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 413

15.10 Machine Control 414

15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys 418

15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys 418

Problems 418

Bibliography 419

16 • ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES 421

16.1 Introduction 421

16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares 423

16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method 424

16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment 428

16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities 430

16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits 432

16.7 Propagation of Errors 436

16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors 437

16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys 443

16.10 The Error Ellipse 452

16.11 Adjustment Procedures 457

16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations 458

16.13 Software 460

16.14 Conclusions 460

Problems 461

Bibliography 466

17 • MAPPING SURVEYS 467

17.1 Introduction 467

17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys 468

17.3 Map Scale 468

17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys 470

17.5 Contours 471

17.6 Characteristics of Contours 474

17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours 474

17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems 477

17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details 479

17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 488

17.11 Selection of Field Method 489

17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software 490

17.13 Hydrographic Surveys 493

17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys 497

17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys 498

Problems 498

Bibliography 500

18 • MAPPING 503

18.1 Introduction 503

18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information 504

18.3 National Mapping Program 505

18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping 505

18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures 507

18.6 Map Design 508

18.7 Map Layout 510

18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures 512

18.9 Contour Interval 514

18.10 Plotting Contours 514

18.11 Lettering 515

18.12 Cartographic Map Elements 516

18.13 Drafting Materials 519

18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems 519

18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping 525

18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping 526

18.17 Mistakes in Mapping 526

Problems 526

Bibliography 528

19 • CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS 529

19.1 Introduction 529

19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid 530

19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole 532

19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature 534

19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical 536

19.6 U.S. Reference Frames 538

19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys 547

19.8 The National Spatial Reference System 550

19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network 550

19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network 551

19.11 Control Point Descriptions 551

19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys 554

19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys 559

19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values 564

19.15 Geodetic Position Computations 577

19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System 580

19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations 581

19.18 Software 584

Problems 584

Bibliography 587

20 • STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS 589

20.1 Introduction 589

20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems 590

20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 593

20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection 594

20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 595

20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System 596

20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System 601

20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids 608

20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations 617

20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another 620

20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83 621

20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 622

20.13 Other Map Projections 623

20.14 Map Projection Software 627

Problems 628

Bibliography 631

21 • BOUNDARY SURVEYS 633

21.1 Introduction 633

21.2 Categories of Land Surveys 634

21.3 Historical Perspectives 635

21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds 636

21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System 639

21.6 Property Description by Coordinates 641

21.7 Retracement Surveys 641

21.8 Subdivision Surveys 644

21.9 Partitioning Land 646

21.10 Registration of Title 647

21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements 648

21.12 Condominium Surveys 648

21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems 655

21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys 655

21.15 Mistakes 655

Problems 656

Bibliography 658

22 • SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS 659

22.1 Introduction 659

22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands 660

22.3 Initial Point 663

22.4 Principal Meridian 664

22.5 Baseline 665

22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) 666

22.7 Guide Meridians 666

22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines 667

22.9 Designation of Townships 668

22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships 668

22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections 670

22.12 Subdivision of Sections 671

22.13 Fractional Sections 672

22.14 Notes 672

22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps 672

22.16 Marking Corners 674

22.17 Witness Corners 674

22.18 Meander Corners 675

22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners 675

22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys 678

22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision 678

22.22 BLM Land Information System 679

22.23 Sources of Error 680

22.24 Mistakes 680

Problems 681

Bibliography 683

23 • CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS 685

23.1 Introduction 685

23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys 686

23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 689

23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline 691

23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades 692

23.6 Staking Out a Building 694

23.7 Staking Out Highways 698

23.8 Other Construction Surveys 703

23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments 704

23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment 706

23.11 Machine Guidance and Control 709

23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning 710

23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys 711

23.14 Mistakes 712

Problems 712

Bibliography 714

24 • HORIZONTAL CURVES 715

24.1 Introduction 715

24.2 Degree of Circular Curve 716

24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas 718

24.4 Circular Curve Stationing 720

24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles 721

24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords 723

24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 725

24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 726

24.9 Setups on Curve 727

24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 728

24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords 730

24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve 731

24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates 733

24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations 738

24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets 739

24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems 742

24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves 743

24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 743

24.19 Spirals 744

24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments 749

24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves 752

24.22 Mistakes 752

Problems 753

Bibliography 755

25 • VERTICAL CURVES 757

25.1 Introduction 757

25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve 758

25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve 759

25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 761

25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation 761

25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola 765

25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion 766

25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve 766

25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations 767

25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve 767

25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point 770

25.12 Sight Distance 771

25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves 773

25.14 Mistakes 774

Problems 774

Bibliography 776

26 • VOLUMES 777

26.1 Introduction 777

26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement 777

26.3 The Cross-Section Method 778

26.4 Types of Cross Sections 779

26.5 Average-End-Area Formula 780

26.6 Determining End Areas 781

26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts 784

26.8 Prismoidal Formula 786

26.9 Volume Computations 788

26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method 790

26.11 Contour-Area Method 791

26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge 793

26.13 Software 794

26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes 795

26.15 Mistakes 795

Problems 795

Bibliography 798

27 • PHOTOGRAMMETRY 799

27.1 Introduction 799

27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry 800

27.3 Aerial Cameras 801

27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs 803

27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs 804

27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph 806

27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph 810

27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph 811

27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph 813

27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax 814

27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing 817

27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax 819

27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry 820

27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments 821

27.15 Orthophotos 826

27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry 827

27.17 Flight Planning 828

27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems 830

27.19 Remote Sensing 831

27.20 Software 837

27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry 838

27.22 Mistakes 838

Problems 839

Bibliography 842

28 • INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 843

28.1 Introduction 843

28.2 Land Information Systems 846

28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications 846

28.4 Spatial Data 846

28.5 Nonspatial Data 852

28.6 Data Format Conversions 853

28.7 Creating GIS Databases 856

28.8 Metadata 862

28.9 GIS Analytical Functions 862

28.10 GIS Applications 867

28.11 Data Sources 867

Problems 869

Bibliography 871

APPENDIX A • DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES 873

APPENDIX B • EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS 888

APPENDIX C • ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS 895

APPENDIX D • USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE 911

APPENDIX E • INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES 917

APPENDIX F • U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS 923

APPENDIX G • ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 927

INDEX 933

Relate keywordselementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition solutions pdf

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition pdf download

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics thirteenth edition

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition answers

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition solutions

elementary surveying – an introduction to geomatics 13th ed

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition solutions manual

elementary surveying an introduction to geomatics 13th edition pdf solutions

Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition Charles D. Ghilani

#Elementary #Geomatics #13th #Ghilani

0 notes

afishtrap · 7 years

Link

We now know, of course, that at a time when European seafaring was a mostly coast-hugging, tentative affair, loin-clothed “primitives” of Asian origin were braving the long swells of the Pacific. Their craft were probably sennit-lashed vessels of low freeboard (Sinoto 1983) and their navigational feats seemingly uncanny. Thanks to the recent work of such scholars and experimenters as Dodd, Finney, Goodenough, Alkire, Gladwin, and Lewis we now have a good idea of how such long-distance navigation may have taken place. The “discovery” of modern practitioners of the indigenous arts of noninstrumental celestial navigation, especially in Micronesia, has shed much light on the particulars of Pacific wayfinding.

Michael Halpern. “Sidereal Compasses: a Case for Carolinian-arab Links.” The Journal of the Polynesian Society. Volume 95, No. 4, p 441-460.

Remnants of star path and star compass navigational systems can be found in both the lore and current usage, as well as Western historical accounts, of other Indo-Pacific peoples. From all across this region comes evidence of long-distance voyaging and indigenous celestial navigation (D. Lewis 1964, 1972, 1978b; Best 1922:28; Dodd 1972:49; Ellis 1831:168; Da Silva and Johnson 1982:313–22; Haddon 1937:93; Sarfert and Damm 1929:187, 195; Liechti et al. 1980:2–4; A. Lewis 1973:252 n.3; Ferrand 1919:160). The present discussion will focus on the best available evidence, that from the Carolines.

All these star systems were made possible by a peculiarity of tropical naked-eye astronomy. In all latitudes stars appear to rise and set at the same point on the horizon throughout the year (Thomas 1982:2). But only relatively close to the equator is their motion vertical as they leave or approach the horizon. Beyond the tropics, stars rise and set obliquely, describing a circle about the celestial pole, the projection of the terrestrial pole on to the “dome” of the heavens (Aveni 1981). This vertical motion allows stars to be used as directional indicators some distance from the tropical horizon. In temperate zones, their oblique motion near the horizon markedly reduces their directional usefulness.

Carolinian navigators still use their sidereal compass to effect voyages often hundreds of kilometres in length (Gladwin 1970:37–39; D. Lewis 1978b:162–3, 177–80). And evidence from Western observers as well as indigenous tradition indicates that such long trips were more common in the past (Parsonson 1963:33; Åkerblom 1968:115; Lewthwaite 1967:76). Meanwhile, a cultural and geographical world away, Arab navigators also used the stars to guide them at sea (Taylor 1957:128). Interestingly, here, too, we find a sidereal rose showing remarkable similarities to the Carolinian (Fig. 2). A diagram of the rose was copied in the early 19th century from an Arab nautical treatise, the Majid Kitab (Prinsep 1836:Plate 48, 788). Its use is described in the Muhit, a 16th century Turkish work (Von Hammer 1834:548, 1838:768–9), though its representational roots probably reach much deeper into history (Ferrand 1928:198; 225; Tibbetts 1971:296). The Arab and Carolinian compasses share 18 points in common. Further, Arab navigators spoke of setting courses on the names of stars rather than in degrees even when the latter were available (Prinsep 1836:788–9). The version of this rose that has come down to us clearly postdates the introduction of the magnetic compass. The azimuths are regularly spaced and accompanied by degree notations. Their names, taken from the rising and setting points of stars, must be mere conventions.

[...]

By calculating the positions of the individual stars and constellations of the Arab rose at various times in the past, it can be seen that their relative positions did, indeed, correspond to those of the currently known representation. 3 This tends to confirm the speculations of both Prinsep (1836:788) and de Saussure (1928:124) that an Arab sidereal rose predated the use of stellar rhumb names on their magnetic compasses. As recently as A.D. 1000, for instance, Canopus was about the same distance from the equator as the prominent stars of the Southern Cross. In ancient times it was farther south, suggesting a cause for its choice as the rose's southern marker. The same precessional change resulted in the shift in the relative positions of Canopus and Alpha/Beta Centauri sometime between 1500 and 2000 years ago. Before that time, their depiction in the Arab rose accurately reflected their actual relationship. The Antares-Pleiades configuration displays a similar pattern. Just before A.D. 1000 Arcturus rose several degrees north of the Pleiades, as in the Arab compass. This gap increases as we recede further into the past, at least to 3500 B.C. The calculations show that at about the beginning of our own era, approximately 2000 years ago, all the stars held relative positions in the sky just as they are found in the representation of the Arab sidereal rose. Several hundred years earlier or later this was not the case.

There is, however, a complicating factor. Some of the gaps between adjacent calculated bearings are very small, on the order of a degree or two (e.g., Capella and Vega). The problem arises, then, of explaining - 447 why a navigator would choose two azimuths in such close proximity. While there is no definitive answer, one need only look to the still-functioning Carolinian compass for instruction. Here, the azimuths denoted by Tarazed (Gamma Aquilae) and Altair, the two closest of the entire compass, show a difference of barely 2° in their rising points along the horizon from the approximate latitude of the Carolines chain. This bunching of points around the east-west line presumably serves the local needs of the navigators since most voyaging was and is along the main axis of the chain (Gladwin 1970:152, 154 but see D. Lewis 1972:67). A similar explanation in the Arab case is plausible, though less readily understandable in light of the scanty information and long, open-water sea routes of the Indian Ocean.

[...]

But what of the Arab compass? Altair appears to rise even farther from true east, though only marginally, from the slightly higher latitudes frequented by Arab seafarers. Here too, then, it could not have been chosen because of some past correspondence with the celestial equator. Both Ibn Majid, the famous 15th century navigator and his 16th century Turkish translator, Admiral Sidi Ali Çelebi, were aware of the Altair discrepancy and the latter, at least, knew of precessional changes (Grosset-Grange 1972:39; Ferrand 1919:500–01). Tibbetts (1971:150) states that, while the “ancients” were aware of Altair's true position, early mariners used it anyway because their measurements were only approximate and because “the seamen of the Indian Ocean and others relied on it and so described it to each other.” If true, this would be a strong indication that early Arab navigators learned the use of the sidereal rose from other seafarers plying the Indian Ocean. These “others” were, perhaps, Austronesian cousins of the Carolinians.

Celestial longitude is usually designated by right ascension, a temporal measure based on the equivalence of 360° of longitude and 24 sidereal hours. It is measured in hours and minutes east from the vernal equinox. For example, a star found 60° east of the zero point has a right ascension of four hours (Jastrow and Thompson 1972:I–21 — I–23). Though the rising times of the Carolinian compass stars are generally spread out over a given 24-hour period, gaps do occur. This is not a serious problem for the navigator since the companion stars, those of similar declination but different right ascension, serve during these periods. Conveniently, the Carolinian compass calculated for 2000 years ago displays one large gap which falls entirely in daylight hours during the voyaging season. The differing conditions of Indian Ocean monsoon sailing eliminates this correspondence, though the voyaging season was much more flexible in these seas (Grosset-Grange 1970:236–38, 1978:18, Fig. 6). The companion stars would, of course, have permitted use of the compass at any time. This is one more indication, however, that the Arabs were working with a borrowed system.

The Arab rose of 2000 years ago (calculated) shows a bunching of azimuths around due north. This fact, plus the Arabs' well-known skill at latitude sailing by the height of Polaris and circumpolar stars (Prinsep 1836; Ferrand 1928; Tolmacheva 1980) might argue for a more northerly origin of their compass. But as we have seen, the astronomical requisites of navigation by rising and setting azimuths are particular to tropic regions. The Arabs' facility at latitude sailing carried them at least as far as India (and later to China and the East Indies) where they could have met Tibbetts' “seamen of the Indian Ocean and others,” possibly from or in contact with tropical Indo-Pacific lands, who taught them to key their compass to Altair. Such contact may have also led to the Arabs' use of the height of al-Murabba', the Southern Cross, for latitude determination south of the equator (Tibbetts 1971:340), though they may have discovered it themselves on voyages to the east or south to Madagascar.

There is, however, important evidence of former star compass use elsewhere in the Pacific. On Tonga, an elder of a traditional clan of navigators named “eight star points indicating directions rather than the positions of islands...” (D. Lewis 1978b:76). These had been learned from his father who reportedly knew more than he. In Tahiti Andia y Varela found a 16-point compass rose in use near the end of the 18th century, east being the principal direction (D. Lewis 1964:365). And David Malo reported that in Hawaii the stars were used as a compass (Hornell 1936:25). From the island of Madura off Java's north coast comes the report that there were 25 stars basic to navigational science, their rising and setting points constituting the bintang pedoman or star compass. Here, Altair was considered of primary importance, though not all the azimuths were remembered by the informants (Liechti et al. 1980:2–4). Though there is some question as to the accuracy of the star names reported (Horridge 1984; D. Lewis 1984; Frake 1984), the compass suggested by the researchers may have been a system of star path navigation used in conjunction with a cognitive directional system based on wind or other names. Support for the validity of this rose comes from an unusual quarter: Ibn Majid, the 16th-century Arab pilot. He claimed that, while most seafaring peoples of the Indian Ocean used a 32-point compass, the Chinese and Javanese roses contained only 24 stations (Ferrand 1924:216). It is not difficult to imagine that Majid's 24-point Javanese compass and the 25 stars of the Madurese informants refer to the same construct.

#polynesia #oceania #archaeology #anthropology #maritime #research

0 notes