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suite43 · 3 years

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PS Neither the egg fic nor the vegan freak have anything to do with M/gastar before you try it. That's all pure Starscream stanning, baby. And one of them is St/rop, the supposedly ""good""" ship LOL.

List of female Transformers Main Complete list Following is a thorough list of the various female Transformers in canon thus far. Many of these characters were Japan-exclusive, featured only in fiction, or exist as limited-run exclusive toys. Female characters who had multiple toys are listed only once. Generation 1 (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Chromia (1) Moonracer (2) Firestar (3) Elita One (4) Greenlight (5) Lancer (6) Arcee (7) Beta (8) An Autobot rebel (9) Paradron Medic (11) Nancy (12) Minerva (13) Clipper (14) Karmen (18) Glyph (20) Road Rage (21) Discharge[1] (22) Windy[1] (23) Vibes (24) Roulette (25) Flareup (32) Flip Sides (34) Rosanna (35) Windrazor (38) Thunderblast (46) Cassiopeia (47) Nautica (51) Windblade (52) Victorion (61) Velocity (63) Javelin (62) Proxima (64) Roadmaster (65) Acceleron (66) Override (69) Rust Dust (70) Pyra Magna (71) Skyburst (72) Stormclash (73) Jumpstream (74) Dust Up (75) Scorpia[1] (76) Eos (80) Lifeline (83) Quickslinger (84) Hotwire[2] (98) Strongarm (99) Slide[2] (104) Crush Bull[2] (107) Oiler[2] (108) Broadside[2] (109) Sky High[2] (110) Circuit[2] (116) Pyra Ignatia Spark[2] (118) Scorchfire (122) Orthia (126) Smashdown[2] (128) Esmeral (15) Lyzack (16) Clio (17) Nightracer (19) Shadow Striker (26) Howlback (31) Flamewar (33) Flip Sides (34) Crasher (39) Freezon[1] (44) Nightracer (49) Slipstream (50) Twirl (54) Nickel (60) Swift (77) Killjoy (79) Blackout[2] (81) Spaceshot[2] (82) Crash Test (85) Trickdiamond (92) Moonheart (93) Megaempress (94) Flowspade (95) Lunaclub (96) Megatronia (100) Buckethead[1] (103) Diveplane[1] (112) Seawave[1] (113) Mindgame (114) Tracer[2] (115) Devastator[2] (117) Cindersaur[2] (125) Shadow Striker (127) Nova Storm[2] (129) Termagax (133) Kaskade (135) Heavywait (138) Tyrannocon Rex (139) Cheesecake robot (10) Roulette and Shadow Striker's sister (27) Path Finder (28) Small Foot (29) Devcon's galpal (30) One of Optimus Prime's rescuees (36) Angela (37) Four members of the Kaon upperclass (40-43) Ma-Grrr (45) Red waitress Transformer (48) Windshear (53) Solus Prime (55) Female protester (56) Lightbright (57) Strafe (58) Mistress of Flame (59) Exocet (67) Vertex (68) Aileron (78) Gnash (86) Slice (87) Thrashclaw (88) Shred (89) A pair of Devisen twins (90-91) Maxima (97) Sieg[3] (101) Kari (102) Anode (105) Lug (106) X-Throttle (111) Rum-Maj (119) Praesidia Magna (120) Fastbreak (121) Crash Test (122) Stardrive (123) Magrada (124) Leviathan (130) Codexa (131) Gauge (132) Lodestar (134) Shutter (136) Sharpclaw (137) Cargohold (140) Half-qualifiers: Alana, turned into a Transformer for a short time. Aunty, female Cybertronian intelligent computer. Combination granny and attack-dog-bots, human-sized drones supposedly based on Transformer technology. One of Maccadam's bartenders Nightbird Overlord, has a female side to him. Some of the "Teletraan" computers like 15 and 10 are female. There appears to be a female design among a group of old generics. Bayonet, the fake female Decepticon disguise of Britt. In the French dub of The Transformers: The Movie, Shrapnel and Starscream are considered female. Shrapnel is also female in the Russian dub. Beast Era (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Airazor (2) Kitte Shūshū (5) Rage (6) Botanica (7) Sonar[1] (13) Crystal Widow (14) Crossblades (15) Stiletto (16) Transmutate[1] (18) Binary (19) Wedge Shape[1] (24) Aura (25) Legend Convoy[1] (26) Stockade[2] (28) Rav (29) Hammerstrike[2] (31) Triceradon[2] (35) Skimmer (36) Nyx (44) Blackarachnia (1) Scylla (3) Antagony (4) Strika (8) Manta Ray[1] (17) Ser-Ket (20) Dead-End[2] (27) Jai-Alai (30) Max-B[2] (32) Gaidora (33) Soundbyte/Soundbite (34) Liftoff (37) Freefall (38) Snarl-blast[2] (39) Vertebreak (43) Skold (45) Libras (9) Virgol (10) Cancix[1] (11) Possibly Sagittarii (12) Dipole (21) Vamp (22) Plasma[2] (23) Deep Blue (40) At least two bridge officers of the Terrastar (41-42) Half-qualifiers: NAVI-ko, female Cybertronian intelligent computer NAVI (Yukikaze), female Cybertronian intelligent computer NAVI (Gung Ho), female Cybertronian

intelligent computer DNAVI, female Cybertronian intelligent computer Medusa, an Intruder-built robot modified with Cybertronian technology Robots in Disguise (2001) (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Optimus Prime[2] (1) Nightcruz[1] (3) Scourge[2] (2) Half-qualifiers: T-AI, female Cybertronian intelligent computer. Unicron Trilogy (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Airazor (5) Arcee (9) Autobot nurses (10) Two Velocitronian band members (11-12) Override[4] (13) Joyride[4] (15) Quickslinger (16) Crystal Widow (24) Treadbolt (33) Chromia (34) Thunderblast (14) Spacewarp (30) Sureshock (1) Combusta (2) Falcia (3) Twirl (4) Sunburn (6) Cliffjumper[1] (7) Ironhide[1] (8) Spiral[1] (9) Offshoot[1] (17) Breakage[1] (18) Kickflip[1] (19) Mudbath[1] (20) Heavy Metal[1] (21) "Disco ball" (22) Road Rebel[1] (23) Guardian Speed[1] (25) Mugen[1] (26) Bingo/Triac[1] (27) Wedge Shape[1] (28) Sprite (29) Boom Tube (31) Windrazor (32) Rán (33) Half-qualifiers: A possible scooterformer Dark Nitro Convoy, evil clone of a character whose gender was switched in translation Red Alert, minimally-altered release of a toy that was female in Japan Midnight Express, unaltered release of a toy that was female in Japan Hourglass, a female character who might be a Cybertronian Bombshell, a female character who might be a Cybertronian Carillon, a female character who might be a Cybertronian Vector Prime, the former multiversal entity who was female in some universes Movie continuity family (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Arcee (1) Elita-One (2) Chromia (4) Perihelion (8) HMS Alliance (9) Windblade (13) Fracture (3) Alice (5) Shadow Striker (6) Override[3] (7) Diabla (10) Howlback (11) Shatter (12) Nightbird Airazor Half-qualifiersJetfire claims to have a mother who may or may not have been a Transformer. Animated (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Sari Sumdac (2) Arcee (3) Elita-1 (4) Red Alert (6) Botanica (8) Flareup (10) Rosanna (11) Glyph (12) Lickety-Split (13) Lightbright (14) Chromia (16) Clipper (17) Quickslinger (18) Kappa Supreme (19) Override Prime (20) Windy (21) Road Rage (25) Flashpoint (26) Minerva (27) Sureshock (28) Nightbeat (29) Sunstreaker (30) Blackarachnia (1) Slipstream (5) Strika (7) Flip Sides (9) Antagony (15) Wingthing (22) Beta (23) Drag Strip (24) Half-qualifiers: Teletran-1, female Cybertronian intelligent computer TransTech (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Blackarachnia (5) Strika (3) Unnamed medic (1) Andromeda (2) Cyclis (4) Sonar (6) Hammerstrike (7) Scorpia (8) Proxima (9) Half-qualifiers: Axiom Nexus News Editor, a 'bot with one male and one female personality Shattered Glass (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Crasher (1) Esmeral (6) Howlback (7) Arcee (2) Andromeda (3) Elita-One (4) Strongarm (8) Windblade (9) Nautica (10) Beta (5) Half-qualifiers: Teletraan-X, female Cybertronian intelligent computer. Aligned continuity family (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Akiba Prime Arc Arcee Arcee Blade Assault Star Brushfire Cameo Catapult Chevalier Chromia Deep Blue Ether Walker Firestar Galaxy Flare Galaxy 'Questrian Glow Matronly Docent Quickshadow Rocket Plume Solus Prime Strongarm Tempest Spin Thunderclap Upkeep Windblade Airachnid Astraea Aurora Speeder Balewing Coldstar Crimson Phantom Cyberwarp Cyclone Dancer Diabla Duststorm Fallen Angel Filch Flamewar Flash Runner Glowstrike Hoverbolt Helter-Skelter Hurricane Hunter Ida Lensflare Metal Thunder Nebula Ripper Night Dancer Overhead Retrofit Rollcage Scatterspike Skyjack Slink Slipstream Spiral Zealot Supernova Flame Variable Star Void Pulse Zizza Ser-Ket Ripclaw Azimuth Cogwheel Elita One Mercury Moonracer Nightra Override Bot Shots (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Buzzclaw (1) Kre-O (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Chromia (1) Arcee (3) Strika (4) Minerva (5) Windblade (6) Paradron Medic (10) Strongarm (12) Skimmer[1] (13) Airachnid (2) Thunderblast (7) Blackarachnia (8) Slipstrike (9) Ida (11) Liftoff[1] (14) Freefall[1] (15) Angry Birds Transformers (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Stella as:Arcee

(1) Airachnid (2) Chromia (4) Novastar (10) Moonracer (11) Greenlight (12) Silver as:Windblade (3) Energon Windblade (5) Elita-One (8) Matilda as:Energon Nautica (6) Nautica (7) Strongarm (9) Zeta as:Nightbird (13) Rosanna (15) Zeta as:Slipstream (14) Cyberverse (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Arcee Chromia Clobber Jazz[3] Windblade Alpha Strike Nova Storm Shadow Striker Skywarp Slipstream Blackarachnia Cosmos Operatus Solus Prime Half-qualifiers: In the Japanese dub of Cyberverse, Thrust was female, and went by the name Red Wing. Acid Storm fluctuates between the male and female Seeker body types in show. Mae Catt would explain this on Twitter as this being "just something Acid Storm likes to do" and that pronouns are "up to Acid Storm". This would imply Acid Storm is non-binary gender fluid, thus they semi-qualify for the list. BotBots (Numbers indicate order of appearance.) Aday Angry Cheese Arctic Guzzlerush Bankshot Big Cantuna Bok Bok Bok-O Bonz-Eye Bot-T-Builder Bottocorrect Bratworst Brock Head Chef Nada Clawsome Crabby Grabby Cuddletooth Dingledeedoo Disaster Master Disgusto Desserto DJ Fudgey Fresh Doctor Flicker Drama Sauce Drillit Yaself Face Ace Fail Polish Fit Ness Monster Flare Devil Flood Jug Fomo Frohawk Frostfetti Frostyface Glam Glare Fancy Flare Glitch Face Goggly Spy P.I. Gold Dexter Goldface Goldiebites Goldie Terrortwirl Goldito Favrito Goldpin Baller Gold Punch Grampiano Grandma Crinkles Grave Rave The Great Mumbo Bumblo Greeny Rex Grrr'illa Grimes Halloween Knight Handy Dandy Hashtagz Hawt Diggity Hawt Mess Highroller Hiptoast Ice Sight Javasaurus Rex Jet Setter Knotzel Latte Spice Whirl Leafmeat Alone Loadoutsky Lolly Licks Lolly Mints Miss Mixed Movie Munchster Ms. Take Must Turd Nanny McBag Nomaste Nope Soap Ol' Tic Toc Ollie Bite Outta Order Overpack Pop N. Lock Pop O' Gold Pressure Punk Professor Scope Rebugnant Roarista Sandy Shades Scribby Sheriff Sugarfeet Shifty Gifty Sippyberry Sippy Slurps Skippy Dippy Disc Slappyhappy Smooth Shaker Smore N' More Sour Wing Starscope Sticky McGee Sugar Saddle Super Bubs Sweet Cheat Technotic Sonic Terror Tale Torch Tidy Trunksky Tricitrustops Tropic Guzzlerush Tutu Puffz Twerple Burple Unilla Icequeencone Venus Frogtrap Vigitente Waddlepop Wasabi Breath Whirlderful Whoopsie Cushion Wristocrat

#really long post #red.reply #spamguy

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artofchinara · 4 years

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Different anon than before, but since Shellshock has been brought up I may as well ask- is chapter 66 the last chapter written? It appears to have been made in 2018 but I can't find any further chapters? Sorry I'm just confuzzled! On that note I adore Shellshock and Captain Polaris both, and ngl you sold me on Ratchet x Azimuth

Hi there! 🤗

No, Chapter 66 isn't the last one written. I think we have material for 3 more chapters - though we haven't finished the story itself. I think one or two more would have to be added on top of that.

We are currently rewriting chapter 67 as some parts of it definitely are no longer suitable for our standards in 2020 - given that it was written, what, in 2014? - so that you can have an enjoyable reading experience 😜 as a teaser for the content, just enjoy the chapter cover for now!

Oh and: THANKS SO MUCH FOR SUPPORTING BOTH SS AND CAPTAIN POLARIS!!! 😭😭😭 this means a lot to me that you enjoy both works!!!

#ratchet and clank #ask chinara #shellshock

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yhwhrulz · 3 years

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didanawisgi · 7 years

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ABSTRACT

Despite great progress in neuroscience, there are still fundamental unanswered questions about the brain, including the origin of subjective experience and consciousness. Some answers might rely on new physical mechanisms. Given that biophotons have been discovered in the brain, it is interesting to explore if neurons use photonic communication in addition to the well-studied electro-chemical signals. Such photonic communication in the brain would require waveguides. Here we review recent work [S. Kumar, K. Boone, J. Tuszynski, P. Barclay, and C. Simon, Scientific Reports 6, 36508 (2016)] suggesting that myelinated axons could serve as photonic waveguides. The light transmission in the myelinated axon was modeled, taking into account its realistic imperfections, and experiments were proposed both in vivo and in vitro to test this hypothesis. Potential implications for quantum biology are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Over the past decades a substantial number of facts has been discovered in the field of brain research. However, the fundamental question of how neurons, or more specifically all particles involved in the biological processes in the brain, contribute to mental abilities such as consciousness is still unanswered. The true explanation to this question might rely on physical processes other than those that have been discovered so far. One interesting candidate to focus on is biophotons, which might serve as supplementary information carriers in the brain in addition to the well established electro-chemical signals. Biophotons – which are photons ranging from near-IR to near-UV frequency and emitted without any enhancement or excitation– have been observed in many organisms such as bacteria (1), fungi (2), germinating seeds (3), plants (4), animal tissue 1 arXiv:1708.08887v1 [physics.bio-ph] 23 Aug 2017 Are there optical communication channels in the brain? cultures (5), and different parts of the human body (6–9), including the brain (10–15). These biophotons are produced by the decay of electronically excited species which are created chemically during oxidative metabolic processes (16, 17) and can contribute to communication between cells (18). Moreover, several experimental studies show the effects of light on neurons’ and, generally, the brain’s function (19–21). The existence of biophotons and their possible effects on the the brain along with the fact that photons are convenient carriers of information raises the question whether there could be optical communication in the brain. For the sources and detectors of the optical communication process in the brain, mitochondrial respiration (22, 23) or lipid oxidation (24), and centrosomes (25) or chromophores in the mitochondria (26) have been proposed, respectively. It has also been observed that opsins, photoreceptor protein molecules, exist in the brains of birds (27, 28), mammals (29–32), and more general vertebrates (33) and even in other parts of their bodies (34, 35) as well. Another essential element for this optical communication, which is not well established yet, is the existence of physical links to connect all of these spatially separated agents in a selective way. In the dense and (seemingly) disordered environment of the brain, waveguide channels for traveling photons would be the only viable way to achieve the targeted optical communication processes. Mitochondria and microtubules in neurons have been introduced as the candidates for such waveguides (36–39). However, they are not suitable in reality due to their small and inhomogeneous structure for light guidance over proper distances in the brain. Ref. (40) proposed myelinated axons as potential biophoton waveguides in the brain. The proposal is supported by a theoretical model and numerical results taking into account real imperfections. Myelin sheath (formed in the central nervous system by a kind of glia cell called oligodendrocyte) is a lamellar structure surrounding the axon and has a higher refractive index (41) than both the inside of the axon and the interstitial fluid outside (see Fig. 1a) which let the myelin sheath to guide the light inside itself for optical communications. This compact sheath also increases the propagation speed of an action potential (via saltatory conduction) based on its insulating property (42). There has been a few indirect experimental evidence for light conduction by axons (12, 43, 44). Another related and interesting experiment has shown that a certain type of glia cells, known as Muller cells, ¨ guide light in mammalian eyes (45, 46). Ref. (40) also proposed experiments to test the existence of the optical waveguides in the brain. One interesting property of optical communication channels is that they can also transmit quantum information. Quantum effects in biological systems are being studied in different areas such as photosynthesis (47, 48), avian magnetoreception (49, 50), and olfaction (51, 52). There is an increasing number of conjectures about the role of quintessential quantum features such as superposition and entanglement (53) in the brain (15, 38, 54–56). The greatest challenge when considering quantum effects in the brain or any biological system in general is environmentally induced decoherence (57), which leads to the suppression of these quantum phenomena. However, some biological processes can be fast and may show quantum features before they are destroyed by the environment. Moreover, nuclear spins can have coherence times of tens of milliseconds in the brain (58, 59). A recent proposal on “quantum cognition” suggests even longer coherence times of nuclear spins (56), but relies on quantum information transmission via molecule transport, which is very slow. In contrast, photons are the fastest and most robust carriers for quantum information over long distances, which is why currently man-made quantum networks rely on optical communication channels (typically optical fibers) between spins (60, 61).

Results

To show that myelinated axons could serve as the waveguides for traveling biophotons in the brain, Ref. (40) solved the three dimensional electromagnetic field equations numerically in different conditions, using Lumerical’s software packages FDTD (Finite Difference Time Domain) Solutions and MODE Solutions. These software packages solve Maxwell’s equations numerically, allowing the optical properties of dielectric structures defined over a mesh with subwavelength resolution to be simulated. The refractive indices of the fluid outside of the axon, the axon, and the myelin sheath were taken close to 1.34, 1.38 and 1.44 respectively (see Fig. 1a), which are consistent with their typical values (41, 62, 63). These indexes let the myelin sheath guide the light inside itself. The ratio of the radius of the axon, r to the outer radius of the myelin sheath r 0 (g-ratio) is taken equal to 0.6 for the most of the simulations, close to the experimental values (64). In reality, the radius of the myelinated axons in the brain changes from 0.2 microns to close to 10 microns (65). For the purpose of guiding light inside the myelin sheath, Ref. (40) considered the wavelength of the observed biophotons in the brain which is from 200 nm to 1300 nm. Since several proteins in the environment of the axons strongly absorb at wavelengths close to 300nm, a wavelength range of the transmitted light from the shortest permissible wavelength, λmin = 400nm, to the longest one, λmax, was chosen to avoid the absorption and confine the light well in the myelin sheath. λmax is chosen to the upper bound of the observed biophoton wavelength (1300 nm) or the thickness of the myelin sheath (denoted by d), whichever is smaller. Besides λmin and λmax, an intermediate wavelength was considered, denoted by λint , corresponding to the central permissible frequency (mid-frequency of the permissible frequency range) in the simulations. In the following section we discuss the guided modes in the myelinated axons and their transmissions in nodal and paranodal regions and even in the presence of the imperfections such as bends, varying cross-sections, and non-circular cross-sections.

Optical transmission in myelinated axons

Within the neuron, one can identify numerous intra-cellular structures that can function as potential scatterers, i.e. sources of waveguide loss. They are located both inside the axon and outside of the axon. Intra-cellular structures include cell organelles, for example, mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, lipid vesicles, as well as the many filaments of the cytoskeleton, namely microtubules, microfilaments and neurofilaments. Extra-cellular structures include microglia, and astrocytes. However, the electromagnetic modes which are spatially confined within the myelin sheath, should not be affected by the presence of these structures. These biophoton modes considered here would be able to propagate in a biological waveguide provided its dimension is close to or larger than the wavelength of the light. Fig. 1b shows the numerically calculated magnitude of the electric field of a cylindrically symmetric eigenmode of an axon with radius r = 3µm and myelin sheath radius r 0 = 5µm for the wavelength 0.612µm. This electric field is azimuthally polarized as depicted is Fig. 1c and it is similar to the TE01 mode of a conventional fiber (66) which has higher refractive index of the core than that of the cladding. It is important to note that azimuthal polarization would prevent modal dispersion in the birefringent myelin sheath. Importantly, its optical axes are oriented radially (67). It can be readily established that there are hundreds of potential guided modes allowed to exist given the thickness of myelin sheath. Consequently, biophotons that could be generated by a source in the axons (e.g. mitochondria or recombination of reactive oxygen species) could readily interact with these modes as determined by mode-specific coupling coefficients. While we lack detailed knowledge of the particulars for these interactions, for the sake of simplicity and ease of illustration we select a single mode and examine its transmission. It is interesting to analyze transmission in the presence of optical imperfections such as discontinuities, bends and varying cross-sectional diameters. In this connection, we simulated short axonal segments due to computational limitations and extrapolated the results for the full length of an axon.

Transmission in nodal and paranodal regions

A myelinated axon has periodically unmyelinated segments, called Nodes of Ranvier, which are approximatly 1µm long (68) (while the whole axon length varies from 1 mm to the order of a meter). Here, we discuss the transmission in the Ranvier nodes and at the edges of the nodes, the paranodes. The configuration of myelin sheath is special in the paranodal regions (see Fig. 2a). There are many layers making up the compact myelin sheath and at the edge of each node, almost all of the layers are in contact with the core (bared axon) with a small pocket of cytoplasm. That’s because each layer moving from the innermost outward is longer than the one below. However, for thick myelin sheaths, many cytoplasmic pockets cannot reach the surface of the bare axon, but end on inner layers. Thus, the length of paranodal regions is dependent on the thickness of the myelin sheath. We call the ratio of the length of paranode, lparanode, to the thickness of the myelin sheat, d, p-ratio and take its value close to 5 in our simulations based on the realistic values (69). Fig. 2a displays the model of Ref. (40) for two adjacent paranodal regions with the node in between, and Fig. 2b shows the magnitude of the electric field profile in the longitudinal direction (along the length of the axon), EFPL, as a cylindrically symmetric input mode crosses this region. Fig. 2c shows the power transmission in the guided modes as a function of p-ratio for three wavelengths, 0.40 µm, 0.61 µm, and 1.30 µm. For the transmission, there are two main losses: divergence or scattering of the light beam. Shorter wavelengths scatter more but diverge less. Thus, in Fig. 2c, for small p-ratios, shorter wavelengths have higher transmission and as the effect of divergence is dominant in this region and the shorter wavelengths diverge less. However, for the large p-ratios, the effect of scattering is dominant and since the higher wavelengths scatter less, and have a higher transmission. Fig. 2d–f compares the transmission percentage for different axon radii, wavelengths, and p–ratios. Although in Fig. 2d, the behavior of the transmission as a fuction of axon radius is independent of p–ratios for the longest permissible wavelength, it can be concluded that for the most loosely confined modes (λmax) transmission increases in thicker axons. It’s also possible that for long wavelengths, a fraction of the light diverging into the axon comes back into the myelin sheath at the end of the paranodal region and not all the light that diverges is lost. This can be an explanation for not well-defined dependency of the transmission on the paranodal lengths (see Fig. 2d). In, Fig. 2e, and Fig. 2f, for p-ratio = 2.5, based on our intuition from Fig. 2c, the divergence is dominant. Here, the thickness of the axon plays a role in the transmission such that the thicker the axon the divergence is less and the light is transmitted more. However, for larger p–ratios, the scattering is dominant and the light scatters more in thick axons. To summarize, for small p–ratios (∼2.5), the well confined modes (shorter wavelengths) transmit better while for large p–ratios (∼5 or greater), the loosely confined ones (longer wavelengths) transmit better. Thicker axons yield higher transmission for all wavelengths with small p–ratios while it’s inverse only for the shorter wavelengths with large p–ratios. The transmission after several paranodal regions can be roughly estimated by following the intuition of exponentiating the transmission through one (see Supplementary Information of Ref (40))...

Discussion

In this review of Ref. (40) we have discussed how light conduction in a myelinated axon is feasible even in the presence of realistic imperfections in the neuron. We have also described future experiments that could validate or falsify this model of biophoton transmission (40). It is also worth addressing a few related questions. It is of interest to identify possible interaction mechanisms between biophotons and nuclear spins within the framework of quantum communication. Spin chemistry research (87) determined effects whereby electron and nuclear spins affect chemical reactions. These effects can also involve photons. In particular, a class of cryptochrome proteins can be photo-activated resulting in the production of a pair of radicals per event, with correlated electronic spins. This effect has been hypothesized to explain bird magnetoreception (49). It has been recently shown by theoretical considerations that interactions between electron and nuclear spins in cryptochromes are of critical importance to the elucidation of the precision of magnetoreception effects (50). Importantly for this topic, cryptochrome complexes are found in the eyes of mammals and they are also magnetosensitive at the molecular level (88). Therefore, if similar proteins can be found in the inner regions of the human brain, this could provide the required interface between biophotons and nuclear spins. However, for individual quantum communication links to form a larger quantum network with an associated entanglement process involving many distant spins, the nuclear spins interfacing with different axons must interact coherently. This, most likely, requires close enough contact between the interacting spins. The involvement of synaptic junctions between individual axons may provide such a proximity mechanism. We should also address the question of the potential relevance of optical communication between neurons with respect to consciousness and the binding problem. A specific anatomical question that arises is whether brain regions implicated in consciousness (89) (e.g. claustrum (90, 91), the thalamus, hypothalamus and amygdala (92), or the posterior cerebral cortex (89)) have myelinated axons with sufficient diameter to allow light transmission. A major role of the myelin sheath as an optical waveguide could provide a better understanding of the causes of the various diseases associated with it (e.g. multiple sclerosis (93)) and hence lead to a design and implementation of novel therapies for these pathologies. Let us note that, following Ref. (40), we have focused our discussion here on guidance by myelinated axons. However, light guidance by unmyelinated axons is also a possibility, as discussed in more detail in the supplementary information of Ref. (40). Finally, with the advantages optical communication provides in terms of precision and speed, it is indeed a wonder why biological evolution would not fully exploit this modality. On the other hand, if optical communication involving axons is harnessed by the brain, this would reveal a remarkable, hitherto unknown new aspect of the brains functioning, with potential impacts on unraveling fundamental issues of neuroscience.

Source: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1708.08887.pdf

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svyat · 5 years

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noddytheornithopod · 7 years

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I was tagged by @fryferbfringefan44. Now, I have to post 10 characters from 10 fandoms. I’m gonna take some liberties here and bend the rules by not necessarily picking top faves, but faves nonetheless and characters I want to talk about that I don’t really get to in other memes. Be ready, I’m gonna use this to let off some steam. :V

1. Isabella Garcia-Shapiro (Phineas and Ferb): I can’t help but feel controversial here because while I’d hardly call her unpopular, I always get the feeling that most people either don’t care about her much or that the main reason they like her is because they ship her with Phineas (or Ferb, or some other character even). Meanwhile I’m sitting here cringing at my old Phinabella days, and am in that odd sliver that seems to really like her but don’t really focus too much on the Phineas aspect, even if I still have some dreaded Phinabella inside me I’m trying to suppress? I mean, I didn’t even realise she had a crush on Phineas until a year after I discovered the show (yep, I didn’t see crush episodes like how Linda never sees Phineas and Ferb’s inventions). So anyway, I just think she’s really damn cool. She’s hypercompetent like the rest of her peers, she cares about things that matter (in particular the Fireside Girls) as well as her friends, she’s not afraid to speak her mind (well, besides one thing), plus she’s funny, cute and while probably being the most “normal” out of Phineas and Ferb’s group of friends can still have her moments of quirkiness (just watch Return Policy or Face Your Fear, lol). I also find some of her flaws quite interesting, like a lot of her friends we actually see she cares enough about the Fireside Girls to the point where it has given her anxiety over potential failure, and sometimes she has a need for attention (I really like the episode where she’s competing with Candace over attention for Melissa the young Fireside Girl because of this). Granted her central character arc still revolves around Phineas and I understand why some don’t really care for that, but admittedly I like that kind of stuff too (in b4 “problematic fave” comments from people). On one hand I feel like we focused only on her crush at specific times and not nearly as much as some people make it out to be, but on the other hand her crush on Phineas is just super adorable? I think it might actually be because I kind of relate to her (I often remind myself of her at times admittedly, even if there’s other characters I’m more like XD), like there’s loads of characters that exist as love interests but Isabella actually managed to engage me probably because we actually followed her and her feelings instead of her just being some random girl for Phineas to try and impress (I guess I’m saying she was at least active in her own romance storyline, before then I had only really seen boys chasing after girls)? IDK if I’m making sense, but I guess I’m saying even if I think she’s able to stand on her own with her other attributes and is admirable in that regard I can’t help but really relate to the crush stuff too, which is maybe why I like her more than some people (and again, still not in the super shippy wants-her-to-be-with-Phineas-at-all-costs way). But yeah, as you can see I think Isabella is awesome and she’ll always have a special spot as a fave.

2. Jasper (Steven Universe): I choose Jasper because I feel like some people are being somewhat unfair on her? Like, I feel like some people are underestimating how complex she is and that she’s not going to be the “true villain.” Steven Universe never works that way, not even with characters like the Diamonds, you can even ask the writers and they’ll say they don’t do actual villains. Plus, lots of people have gone “true villain” on characters like Peridot when she first appeared, and now look at where she is! Anyway, Jasper’s story is honestly really gripping and also quite tragic. Sure, she works as a great antagonist against the Crystal Gems, but when we piece together where she came from we really get to see why she is the way she is, and she’s actually quite sympathetic. I mean, in her last appearance in Earthlings, I was on the verge of tears. She’s not just some thug, she has things she cares about and has experienced real hurt, and has become quite messed up as a result. Oh, and I can’t wait for her to come back. She’s gotta be back eventually.

3. CT-5555, aka “Fives” (Star Wars): I always enjoyed the clone troopers, but one of my favourites was always Fives. I was always invested in the Domino Squad storyline, and how they rose through the ranks and eventually became ARC Troopers. However, when things got really interesting for me was the Umbara story arc. Here, we not only saw Fives’ capabilities as a soldier, but with Pong Krell taking control of the 501st Legion he actually started to show more colours to his personality. In particular, we got to see that he cared more about what he thought was right than simply following orders without question. Unfortunately, even if that saved him and his fellow clones on Umbara, it would doom him when he learned about Order 66. Fives may have done the right thing, but when the entire Republic is against you for trying to reveal what they perceive as some conspiracy theory, you’re not going to go out well (especially if you have the Sith involved). I just really liked seeing a clone grow rebellious and then renegade but still cared about his duty because it’s either all loyalty or fuck the army, it was a nice balance. It was just committing the crime of asking questions that doomed him (and gosh his death is so sad). At least Rex seemed to listen to his warning though. :’)

4. Bradley Nicholson (Milo Murphy’s Law): IDK if I’ve talked about Bradley much, but he’s just such a blast to watch. Of course there’s the added bonus of Vincent Martella voicing a character radically different from Phineas, but even then he’s just really funny, the voice acting just enhances that. He’s also quite interesting, given that he’s jealous of Milo and the attention he gets, plus he seems kind of lonely. I really want to see him interact with Milo in the future and see whether he changes his opinion on him, or if he somehow grows even more envious while he grows on the others.

5. Makuta Teridax (Bionicle): Yeah, Teridax here is a pretty standard villain with standard villain traits. Selfish, arrogant, wants power, views his subordinates as nothing but tools, associated with darkness, etc. The reason he has left a mark on me is because he’s not only good at what he does, he’s epic at it. They could’ve just had him be some typical dark lord type, but he ended up developing into a character that is able to plan things out to a ridiculous extent. As a result, he would always find ways to be steps ahead of the heroes, and he would even go as far as letting himself be severely defeated and letting them win if it meant achieving his ultimate endgame. Everyone was being played like a puppet, he was powerful but his manipulation and planning is what made him so competent. Oh yeah, and he ended up winning. It literally took a moon to the head to finally take him down, but even then he had already unleashed so much terror on the world that was now his.

6. Keith (Voltron: Legendary Defender): I’m pretty new to VLD so I might not really be as in-depth here now, but Keith is definitely one of my favourite characters in the show. For starters, he’s just really badass. Seriously, he might be reckless at times, but at least he’s not to the point of being foolish, he’s really good at what he does. Also the whole storyline with him being Galra was really interesting, The Blade of Marmora is probably one of my favourite episodes of the show so far. I was already invested in his need for answers, but there he was willing to go to dangerous lengths to get what he wanted. At least the hell he went through was worth it.

7. Alister Azimuth (Ratchet and Clank): Most of the final bosses in Ratchet and Clank games are villains, but here it was literally the mentor character for Ratchet. Granted I’ve never been too savvy with video games, but this twist here when I first saw A Crack in Time blew me away. He’s one of the last of his entire species and has lost everyone who was ever close to him, but when he sees the chance to go back in time, he can’t help but take it. Problem is that he will rip apart time if he actually tries that. It’s actually really dramatic to fight him at the end because throughout the entire game Azimuth had been helping out Ratchet despite stuff from his past slipping into the open (oh yeah, he also feels personally responsible for unwitting helping the one to get rid of the Lombaxes), but when Ratchet and Clank tell him using The Great Clock to alter time would be dangerous, he decides to stop playing nice. He’s rough throughout the entire game, but now he’s not taking anything from anyone. He needed to go back and undo the mistakes of the past, but he had to end up fighting someone who is the son of his once best friend to do it. Granted he’s brought to his senses by the end, but he does end up dying to reverse the time travel process.

8. Connor Temple (Primeval): I don’t remember much of Primeval, but I always liked Connor. Sure, a lot of the time he was there to be goofy and provide comic relief, but he was also really intelligent and knew his stuff. It’s also cool seeing him grow more important with each series, even if in the end his technological skills almost fuck up the Earth since he was being played by the antagonists. Just a fun and cool character.

9. Max Jerry Horowitz (Mary and Max): Mary and Max isn’t a film for the faint of heart (...like me), but Max has always meant a lot to me. He was the first time I had ever seen an Autistic character that felt real, and not just some stereotype or gag. We get to know him and all of the stuff he’s been through, and you can’t help but feel for the guy. He also wasn’t afraid to be himself despite how much hell the world put him through, which is really great to see. Also yay for a character that actually supports neurodiversity in some shape or form!

10. Donna Noble (Doctor Who): Donna was the first companion I got to know on Doctor Who, and she’s still my favourite. I enjoyed seeing someone with a relationship with the Doctor that was platonic but still strong and obviously meant as much as any other kind of relationship, and she was a lot of fun. I understand some found her annoying at first, but if she didn’t start there she wouldn’t have had such great character growth, learning to grow more confident in herself and overcome her insecurities. She was really funny as well, not to mention unafraid to speak up about things. The way she left the show was absolutely heartbreaking though...

I’m not tagging anyone, but if you’re reading this an interested feel free to do this.

#ask #meme #long post #Phineas and Ferb #steven universe #star wars #milo murphy's law #bionicle #voltron: legendary defender #ratchet and clank #primeval #mary and max #doctor who

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awesomelegendaryllamabouque-blog · 6 years

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Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani Wolf

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Table of Contents

1 • INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Definition of Surveying 1 1.2 Geomatics 3 1.3 History of Surveying 4 1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 9 1.5 Importance of Surveying 10 1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 11 1.7 Surveying Safety 13 1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 14 1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 15 1.10 The Surveying Profession 16 1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 17 1.12 Surveying on the Internet 18 1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 19 Problems 20 Bibliography 21

2 • UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES 23 PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Units of Measurement 23 2.3 International System of Units (SI) 25 2.4 Significant Figures 27 2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 29 PART II FIELD NOTES 30 2.6 Field Notes 30 2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 31 2.8 Types of Field Books 32 2.9 Kinds of Notes 33 2.10 Arrangements of Notes 33 2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 35 2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 36 2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 39 2.14 Digital Data File Management 41 2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors 42 Problems 43 Bibliography 44

3 • THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 45 3.3 Errors in Measurements 46 3.4 Mistakes 46 3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 47 3.6 Types of Errors 47 3.7 Precision and Accuracy 48 3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 49 3.9 Probability 49 3.10 Most Probable Value 50 3.11 Residuals 51 3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 51 3.13 General Laws of Probability 55 3.14 Measures of Precision 55 3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 58 3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 58 3.17 Error Propagation 60 3.18 Applications 65 3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 65 3.20 Weights of Observations 66 3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 67 3.22 Using Software 68 Problems 69 Bibliography 71

4 • LEVELING–THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT 73 PART I LEVELING–THEORY AND METHODS 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Definitions 73 4.3 North American Vertical Datum 75 4.4 Curvature and Refraction 76 4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 78 PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING 85 4.6 Categories of Levels 85 4.7 Telescopes 86 4.8 Level Vials 87 4.9 Tilting Levels 89 4.10 Automatic Levels 90 4.11 Digital Levels 91 4.12 Tripods 93 4.13 Hand Level 93 4.14 Level Rods 94 4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 96 Problems 100 Bibliography 102

5 • LEVELING–FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 103 5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 105 5.4 Differential Leveling 106 5.5 Precision 112 5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 113 5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 114 5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 115 5.9 Profile Leveling 117 5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 121 5.11 Use of the Hand Level 122 5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 122 5.13 Mistakes 124 5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 125 5.15 Using Software 125 Problems 127 Bibliography 129

6 • DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 131 PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 131 6.3 Pacing 132 6.4 Odometer Readings 132 6.5 Optical Rangefinders 133 6.6 Tacheometry 133 6.7 Subtense Bar 133 PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING 133 6.8 Introduction to Taping 133 6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 134 6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 135 6.11 Taping on Level Ground 136 6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 138 6.13 Slope Measurements 140 6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 141 6.15 Tape Problems 145 6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem 147 PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 148 6.17 Introduction 148 6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 149 6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 152 6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 153 6.21 Total Station Instruments 156 6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 157 6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 158 6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 160 6.25 Using Software 165 Problems 165 Bibliography 168

7 • ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 169 7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 170 7.4 Direction of a Line 171 7.5 Azimuths 172 7.6 Bearings 173 7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 174 7.8 Computing Azimuths 175 7.9 Computing Bearings 177 7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field 179 7.11 Magnetic Declination 180 7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 181 7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 183 7.14 Local Attraction 184 7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 185 7.16 Mistakes 187 Problems 187 Bibliography 189

8 • TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 191 PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS 191 8.1 Introduction 191 8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 191 8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 194 8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 195 8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 199 8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments 201 PART II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 203 8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 203 8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 204 8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 206 8.10 Closing the Horizon 207 8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 209 8.12 Observing Azimuths 211 8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 211 8.14 Sights and Marks 213 8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 214 8.16 Balancing-In 216 8.17 Random Traverse 217 8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 218 8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 219 8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 222 8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 228 8.22 Mistakes 228 Problems 229 Bibliography 230

9 • TRAVERSING 231 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 233 9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 234 9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 235 9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 235 9.6 Traverse Field Notes 237 9.7 Angle Misclosure 238 9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 239 9.9 Radial Traversing 240 9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 241 9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 242 Problems 242

10 • TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS 245 10.1 Introduction 245 10.2 Balancing Angles 246 10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 248 10.4 Departures and Latitudes 249 10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 251 10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 251 10.7 Traverse Adjustment 252 10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 255 10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 256 10.10 Inversing 260 10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 261 10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 263 10.13 Use of Open Traverses 265 10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 268 10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 269 10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 269 10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 272 Problems 272 Bibliography 275

11 • COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS 277 11.1 Introduction 277 11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles 278 11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 280 11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions 282 11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 284 11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 287 11.7 Three-Point Resection 289 11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 292 11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 297 11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 299 11.11 Software 302 Problems 303 Bibliography 307

12 • AREA 309 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 309 12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures 310 12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 311 12.5 Area by Coordinates 313 12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 317 12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 320 12.8 Partitioning of Lands 321 12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 325 12.10 Software 327 12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 328 12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 328 Problems 328 Bibliography 330

13 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 331 13.1 Introduction 331 13.2 Overview of GPS 332 13.3 The GPS Signal 335 13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 337 13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 345 13.6 Errors in Observations 348 13.7 Differential Positioning 356 13.8 Kinematic Methods 358 13.9 Relative Positioning 359 13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems 362 13.11 The Future 364 Problems 365 Bibliography 366

14 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—STATIC SURVEYS 367 14.1 Introduction 367 14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys 369 14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys 372 14.4 Performing Static Surveys 384 14.5 Data Processing and Analysis 386 14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys 393 14.7 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys 395 Problems 395 Bibliography 397

15 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—KINEMATIC SURVEYS 399 15.1 Introduction 399 15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys 400 15.3 Initialization 402 15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys 403 15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys 405 15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys 408 15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 411 15.8 Real-Time Networks 412 15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 413 15.10 Machine Control 414 15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys 418 15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys 418 Problems 418 Bibliography 419

16 • ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES 421 16.1 Introduction 421 16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares 423 16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method 424 16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment 428 16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities 430 16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits 432 16.7 Propagation of Errors 436 16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors 437 16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys 443 16.10 The Error Ellipse 452 16.11 Adjustment Procedures 457 16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations 458 16.13 Software 460 16.14 Conclusions 460 Problems 461 Bibliography 466

17 • MAPPING SURVEYS 467 17.1 Introduction 467 17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys 468 17.3 Map Scale 468 17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys 470 17.5 Contours 471 17.6 Characteristics of Contours 474 17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours 474 17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems 477 17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details 479 17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 488 17.11 Selection of Field Method 489 17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software 490 17.13 Hydrographic Surveys 493 17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys 497 17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys 498 Problems 498 Bibliography 500

18 • MAPPING 503 18.1 Introduction 503 18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information 504 18.3 National Mapping Program 505 18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping 505 18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures 507 18.6 Map Design 508 18.7 Map Layout 510 18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures 512 18.9 Contour Interval 514 18.10 Plotting Contours 514 18.11 Lettering 515 18.12 Cartographic Map Elements 516 18.13 Drafting Materials 519 18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems 519 18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping 525 18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping 526 18.17 Mistakes in Mapping 526 Problems 526 Bibliography 528

19 • CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS 529 19.1 Introduction 529 19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid 530 19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole 532 19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature 534 19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical 536 19.6 U.S. Reference Frames 538 19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys 547 19.8 The National Spatial Reference System 550 19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network 550 19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network 551 19.11 Control Point Descriptions 551 19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys 554 19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys 559 19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values 564 19.15 Geodetic Position Computations 577 19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System 580 19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations 581 19.18 Software 584 Problems 584 Bibliography 587

20 • STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS 589 20.1 Introduction 589 20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems 590 20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 593 20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection 594 20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 595 20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System 596 20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System 601 20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids 608 20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations 617 20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another 620 20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83 621 20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 622 20.13 Other Map Projections 623 20.14 Map Projection Software 627 Problems 628 Bibliography 631

21 • BOUNDARY SURVEYS 633 21.1 Introduction 633 21.2 Categories of Land Surveys 634 21.3 Historical Perspectives 635 21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds 636 21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System 639 21.6 Property Description by Coordinates 641 21.7 Retracement Surveys 641 21.8 Subdivision Surveys 644 21.9 Partitioning Land 646 21.10 Registration of Title 647 21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements 648 21.12 Condominium Surveys 648 21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems 655 21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys 655 21.15 Mistakes 655 Problems 656 Bibliography 658

22 • SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS 659 22.1 Introduction 659 22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands 660 22.3 Initial Point 663 22.4 Principal Meridian 664 22.5 Baseline 665 22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) 666 22.7 Guide Meridians 666 22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines 667 22.9 Designation of Townships 668 22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships 668 22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections 670 22.12 Subdivision of Sections 671 22.13 Fractional Sections 672 22.14 Notes 672 22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps 672 22.16 Marking Corners 674 22.17 Witness Corners 674 22.18 Meander Corners 675 22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners 675 22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys 678 22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision 678 22.22 BLM Land Information System 679 22.23 Sources of Error 680 22.24 Mistakes 680 Problems 681 Bibliography 683

23 • CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS 685 23.1 Introduction 685 23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys 686 23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 689 23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline 691 23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades 692 23.6 Staking Out a Building 694 23.7 Staking Out Highways 698 23.8 Other Construction Surveys 703 23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments 704 23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment 706 23.11 Machine Guidance and Control 709 23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning 710 23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys 711 23.14 Mistakes 712 Problems 712 Bibliography 714

24 • HORIZONTAL CURVES 715 24.1 Introduction 715 24.2 Degree of Circular Curve 716 24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas 718 24.4 Circular Curve Stationing 720 24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles 721 24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords 723 24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 725 24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 726 24.9 Setups on Curve 727 24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 728 24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords 730 24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve 731 24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates 733 24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations 738 24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets 739 24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems 742 24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves 743 24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 743 24.19 Spirals 744 24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments 749 24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves 752 24.22 Mistakes 752 Problems 753 Bibliography 755

25 • VERTICAL CURVES 757 25.1 Introduction 757 25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve 758 25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve 759 25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 761 25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation 761 25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola 765 25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion 766 25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve 766 25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations 767 25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve 767 25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point 770 25.12 Sight Distance 771 25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves 773 25.14 Mistakes 774 Problems 774 Bibliography 776

26 • VOLUMES 777 26.1 Introduction 777 26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement 777 26.3 The Cross-Section Method 778 26.4 Types of Cross Sections 779 26.5 Average-End-Area Formula 780 26.6 Determining End Areas 781 26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts 784 26.8 Prismoidal Formula 786 26.9 Volume Computations 788 26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method 790 26.11 Contour-Area Method 791 26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge 793 26.13 Software 794 26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes 795 26.15 Mistakes 795 Problems 795 Bibliography 798

27 • PHOTOGRAMMETRY 799 27.1 Introduction 799 27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry 800 27.3 Aerial Cameras 801 27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs 803 27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs 804 27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph 806 27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph 810 27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph 811 27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph 813 27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax 814 27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing 817 27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax 819 27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry 820 27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments 821 27.15 Orthophotos 826 27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry 827 27.17 Flight Planning 828 27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems 830 27.19 Remote Sensing 831 27.20 Software 837 27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry 838 27.22 Mistakes 838 Problems 839 Bibliography 842

28 • INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 843 28.1 Introduction 843 28.2 Land Information Systems 846 28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications 846 28.4 Spatial Data 846 28.5 Nonspatial Data 852 28.6 Data Format Conversions 853 28.7 Creating GIS Databases 856 28.8 Metadata 862 28.9 GIS Analytical Functions 862 28.10 GIS Applications 867 28.11 Data Sources 867 Problems 869 Bibliography 871

APPENDIX A • DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES 873 APPENDIX B • EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS 888 APPENDIX C • ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS 895 APPENDIX D • USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE 911 APPENDIX E • INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES 917 APPENDIX F • U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS 923 APPENDIX G • ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 927 INDEX 933

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There is Peace To Be Found Even Amongst the Raging Waters (Jasper National Park) by Mark Stevens Via Flickr: While at an overlook to Sunwapta Falls with a view looking upstream and to the northeast. This is located along the Icefields Parkway in Jasper National Park. With this image I wanted to capture a wide-angle view as the waters raged on by to the nearby waterfall. I liked how the river flowed around that island with the evergreen tree and decided to center that in the image. The waters would flow on by helping to almost channelized the view. I also like how the nearby mountainside and more distant ridges and peaks added a backdrop for this setting in the Canadian Rockies.

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Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics 13th Edition by Ghilani

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Charles D. Ghilani

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Publisher: Prentice Hall; 13 edition (January 8, 2011)

Language: English

ISBN-10: 0132554348

ISBN-13: 978-0132554343

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Solution Manual for Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition Charles D. Ghilani

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Origin Book information:

Charles D. Ghilani

Hardcover: 984 pages

Publisher: Prentice Hall; 13 edition (January 8, 2011)

Language: English

ISBN-10: 0132554348

ISBN-13: 978-0132554343

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Table of Contents

1 • INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Definition of Surveying 1

1.2 Geomatics 3

1.3 History of Surveying 4

1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 9

1.5 Importance of Surveying 10

1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 11

1.7 Surveying Safety 13

1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 14

1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 15

1.10 The Surveying Profession 16

1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 17

1.12 Surveying on the Internet 18

1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 19

Problems 20

Bibliography 21

2 • UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES 23

PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 23

2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 Units of Measurement 23

2.3 International System of Units (SI) 25

2.4 Significant Figures 27

2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 29

PART II FIELD NOTES 30

2.6 Field Notes 30

2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 31

2.8 Types of Field Books 32

2.9 Kinds of Notes 33

2.10 Arrangements of Notes 33

2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 35

2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 36

2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 39

2.14 Digital Data File Management 41

2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors 42

Problems 43

Bibliography 44

3 • THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS 45

3.1 Introduction 45

3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 45

3.3 Errors in Measurements 46

3.4 Mistakes 46

3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 47

3.6 Types of Errors 47

3.7 Precision and Accuracy 48

3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 49

3.9 Probability 49

3.10 Most Probable Value 50

3.11 Residuals 51

3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 51

3.13 General Laws of Probability 55

3.14 Measures of Precision 55

3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 58

3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 58

3.17 Error Propagation 60

3.18 Applications 65

3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 65

3.20 Weights of Observations 66

3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 67

3.22 Using Software 68

Problems 69

Bibliography 71

4 • LEVELING–THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT 73

PART I LEVELING–THEORY AND METHODS 73

4.1 Introduction 73

4.2 Definitions 73

4.3 North American Vertical Datum 75

4.4 Curvature and Refraction 76

4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 78

PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING 85

4.6 Categories of Levels 85

4.7 Telescopes 86

4.8 Level Vials 87

4.9 Tilting Levels 89

4.10 Automatic Levels 90

4.11 Digital Levels 91

4.12 Tripods 93

4.13 Hand Level 93

4.14 Level Rods 94

4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 96

Problems 100

Bibliography 102

5 • LEVELING–FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS 103

5.1 Introduction 103

5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 103

5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 105

5.4 Differential Leveling 106

5.5 Precision 112

5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 113

5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 114

5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 115

5.9 Profile Leveling 117

5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 121

5.11 Use of the Hand Level 122

5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 122

5.13 Mistakes 124

5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 125

5.15 Using Software 125

Problems 127

Bibliography 129

6 • DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 131

PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES 131

6.1 Introduction 131

6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 131

6.3 Pacing 132

6.4 Odometer Readings 132

6.5 Optical Rangefinders 133

6.6 Tacheometry 133

6.7 Subtense Bar 133

PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING 133

6.8 Introduction to Taping 133

6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 134

6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 135

6.11 Taping on Level Ground 136

6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 138

6.13 Slope Measurements 140

6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 141

6.15 Tape Problems 145

6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem 147

PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 148

6.17 Introduction 148

6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 149

6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 152

6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 153

6.21 Total Station Instruments 156

6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 157

6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 158

6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 160

6.25 Using Software 165

Problems 165

Bibliography 168

7 • ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS 169

7.1 Introduction 169

7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 169

7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 170

7.4 Direction of a Line 171

7.5 Azimuths 172

7.6 Bearings 173

7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 174

7.8 Computing Azimuths 175

7.9 Computing Bearings 177

7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field 179

7.11 Magnetic Declination 180

7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 181

7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 183

7.14 Local Attraction 184

7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 185

7.16 Mistakes 187

Problems 187

Bibliography 189

8 • TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 191

PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS 191

8.1 Introduction 191

8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 191

8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 194

8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 195

8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 199

8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments 201

PART II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 203

8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 203

8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 204

8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 206

8.10 Closing the Horizon 207

8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 209

8.12 Observing Azimuths 211

8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 211

8.14 Sights and Marks 213

8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 214

8.16 Balancing-In 216

8.17 Random Traverse 217

8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 218

8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 219

8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 222

8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 228

8.22 Mistakes 228

Problems 229

Bibliography 230

9 • TRAVERSING 231

9.1 Introduction 231

9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 233

9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 234

9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 235

9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 235

9.6 Traverse Field Notes 237

9.7 Angle Misclosure 238

9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 239

9.9 Radial Traversing 240

9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 241

9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 242

Problems 242

10 • TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS 245

10.1 Introduction 245

10.2 Balancing Angles 246

10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 248

10.4 Departures and Latitudes 249

10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 251

10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 251

10.7 Traverse Adjustment 252

10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 255

10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 256

10.10 Inversing 260

10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 261

10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 263

10.13 Use of Open Traverses 265

10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 268

10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 269

10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 269

10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 272

Problems 272

Bibliography 275

11 • COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS 277

11.1 Introduction 277

11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles 278

11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 280

11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions 282

11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 284

11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 287

11.7 Three-Point Resection 289

11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 292

11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 297

11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 299

11.11 Software 302

Problems 303

Bibliography 307

12 • AREA 309

12.1 Introduction 309

12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 309

12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures 310

12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 311

12.5 Area by Coordinates 313

12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 317

12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 320

12.8 Partitioning of Lands 321

12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 325

12.10 Software 327

12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 328

12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 328

Problems 328

Bibliography 330

13 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 331

13.1 Introduction 331

13.2 Overview of GPS 332

13.3 The GPS Signal 335

13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 337

13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 345

13.6 Errors in Observations 348

13.7 Differential Positioning 356

13.8 Kinematic Methods 358

13.9 Relative Positioning 359

13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems 362

13.11 The Future 364

Problems 365

Bibliography 366

14 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—STATIC SURVEYS 367

14.1 Introduction 367

14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys 369

14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys 372

14.4 Performing Static Surveys 384

14.5 Data Processing and Analysis 386

14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys 393

14.7 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys 395

Problems 395

Bibliography 397

15 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—KINEMATIC SURVEYS 399

15.1 Introduction 399

15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys 400

15.3 Initialization 402

15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys 403

15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys 405

15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys 408

15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 411

15.8 Real-Time Networks 412

15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 413

15.10 Machine Control 414

15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys 418

15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys 418

Problems 418

Bibliography 419

16 • ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES 421

16.1 Introduction 421

16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares 423

16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method 424

16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment 428

16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities 430

16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits 432

16.7 Propagation of Errors 436

16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors 437

16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys 443

16.10 The Error Ellipse 452

16.11 Adjustment Procedures 457

16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations 458

16.13 Software 460

16.14 Conclusions 460

Problems 461

Bibliography 466

17 • MAPPING SURVEYS 467

17.1 Introduction 467

17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys 468

17.3 Map Scale 468

17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys 470

17.5 Contours 471

17.6 Characteristics of Contours 474

17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours 474

17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems 477

17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details 479

17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 488

17.11 Selection of Field Method 489

17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software 490

17.13 Hydrographic Surveys 493

17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys 497

17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys 498

Problems 498

Bibliography 500

18 • MAPPING 503

18.1 Introduction 503

18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information 504

18.3 National Mapping Program 505

18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping 505

18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures 507

18.6 Map Design 508

18.7 Map Layout 510

18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures 512

18.9 Contour Interval 514

18.10 Plotting Contours 514

18.11 Lettering 515

18.12 Cartographic Map Elements 516

18.13 Drafting Materials 519

18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems 519

18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping 525

18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping 526

18.17 Mistakes in Mapping 526

Problems 526

Bibliography 528

19 • CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS 529

19.1 Introduction 529

19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid 530

19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole 532

19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature 534

19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical 536

19.6 U.S. Reference Frames 538

19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys 547

19.8 The National Spatial Reference System 550

19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network 550

19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network 551

19.11 Control Point Descriptions 551

19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys 554

19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys 559

19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values 564

19.15 Geodetic Position Computations 577

19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System 580

19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations 581

19.18 Software 584

Problems 584

Bibliography 587

20 • STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS 589

20.1 Introduction 589

20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems 590

20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 593

20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection 594

20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 595

20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System 596

20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System 601

20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids 608

20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations 617

20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another 620

20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83 621

20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 622

20.13 Other Map Projections 623

20.14 Map Projection Software 627

Problems 628

Bibliography 631

21 • BOUNDARY SURVEYS 633

21.1 Introduction 633

21.2 Categories of Land Surveys 634

21.3 Historical Perspectives 635

21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds 636

21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System 639

21.6 Property Description by Coordinates 641

21.7 Retracement Surveys 641

21.8 Subdivision Surveys 644

21.9 Partitioning Land 646

21.10 Registration of Title 647

21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements 648

21.12 Condominium Surveys 648

21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems 655

21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys 655

21.15 Mistakes 655

Problems 656

Bibliography 658

22 • SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS 659

22.1 Introduction 659

22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands 660

22.3 Initial Point 663

22.4 Principal Meridian 664

22.5 Baseline 665

22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) 666

22.7 Guide Meridians 666

22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines 667

22.9 Designation of Townships 668

22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships 668

22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections 670

22.12 Subdivision of Sections 671

22.13 Fractional Sections 672

22.14 Notes 672

22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps 672

22.16 Marking Corners 674

22.17 Witness Corners 674

22.18 Meander Corners 675

22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners 675

22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys 678

22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision 678

22.22 BLM Land Information System 679

22.23 Sources of Error 680

22.24 Mistakes 680

Problems 681

Bibliography 683

23 • CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS 685

23.1 Introduction 685

23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys 686

23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 689

23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline 691

23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades 692

23.6 Staking Out a Building 694

23.7 Staking Out Highways 698

23.8 Other Construction Surveys 703

23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments 704

23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment 706

23.11 Machine Guidance and Control 709

23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning 710

23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys 711

23.14 Mistakes 712

Problems 712

Bibliography 714

24 • HORIZONTAL CURVES 715

24.1 Introduction 715

24.2 Degree of Circular Curve 716

24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas 718

24.4 Circular Curve Stationing 720

24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles 721

24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords 723

24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 725

24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 726

24.9 Setups on Curve 727

24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 728

24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords 730

24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve 731

24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates 733

24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations 738

24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets 739

24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems 742

24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves 743

24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 743

24.19 Spirals 744

24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments 749

24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves 752

24.22 Mistakes 752

Problems 753

Bibliography 755

25 • VERTICAL CURVES 757

25.1 Introduction 757

25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve 758

25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve 759

25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 761

25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation 761

25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola 765

25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion 766

25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve 766

25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations 767

25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve 767

25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point 770

25.12 Sight Distance 771

25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves 773

25.14 Mistakes 774

Problems 774

Bibliography 776

26 • VOLUMES 777

26.1 Introduction 777

26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement 777

26.3 The Cross-Section Method 778

26.4 Types of Cross Sections 779

26.5 Average-End-Area Formula 780

26.6 Determining End Areas 781

26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts 784

26.8 Prismoidal Formula 786

26.9 Volume Computations 788

26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method 790

26.11 Contour-Area Method 791

26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge 793

26.13 Software 794

26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes 795

26.15 Mistakes 795

Problems 795

Bibliography 798

27 • PHOTOGRAMMETRY 799

27.1 Introduction 799

27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry 800

27.3 Aerial Cameras 801

27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs 803

27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs 804

27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph 806

27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph 810

27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph 811

27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph 813

27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax 814

27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing 817

27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax 819

27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry 820

27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments 821

27.15 Orthophotos 826

27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry 827

27.17 Flight Planning 828

27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems 830

27.19 Remote Sensing 831

27.20 Software 837

27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry 838

27.22 Mistakes 838

Problems 839

Bibliography 842

28 • INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 843

28.1 Introduction 843

28.2 Land Information Systems 846

28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications 846

28.4 Spatial Data 846

28.5 Nonspatial Data 852

28.6 Data Format Conversions 853

28.7 Creating GIS Databases 856

28.8 Metadata 862

28.9 GIS Analytical Functions 862

28.10 GIS Applications 867

28.11 Data Sources 867

Problems 869

Bibliography 871

APPENDIX A • DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES 873

APPENDIX B • EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS 888

APPENDIX C • ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS 895

APPENDIX D • USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE 911

APPENDIX E • INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES 917

APPENDIX F • U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS 923

APPENDIX G • ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 927

INDEX 933

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