#Ethiopic Gospels

[santmat]

Podcast on the Case For the Books of Enoch

1) Enoch and the Dead Sea Scrolls: The book of First Enoch was part of the Dead Sea Scrolls Bible -- the Essene Library of Qumran in Israel. First Enoch was included amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls, in fact was one of the most widely read holy books at Qumran (400 BC -- 70 AD). This observation is based upon the large number of Aramaic Enoch fragments that have been found there. Many Jews were studying Enoch before and during the time of Jesus.

2) Jude Quoted Enoch in the New Testament: The author of the Book of Jude quoted First Enoch in his New Testament epistle (letter), a great canonical endorsement for the Book of Enoch by the Original Jesus Movement. The Bibles that bare the most resemblance to the Scriptures of Jude and the Original Aramaic-speaking Christians is the Ethiopian Bible, as well as the Dead Sea Scrolls-Essene-Qumran Bible. Jude not only quotes from Enoch, but also from the Assumption of Moses. Both Enoch and Assumption of Moses were recognized as Scripture by the Essenes; see more on the Ethiopian Bible below. In addition to Jude, Biblical scholars also have noticed many parallel verses and shared ideas between the New Testament and Book of Enoch, illustrating how influential the Book of Enoch was on Jesus, the authors of the Gospels and other New Testament books. The Book of First Enoch is an important key foundational text of early Christianity.

3) The early Church father Tertullian Referred to Enoch as "Scripture": The Early Church father Tertullian quotes passages from the Book of Enoch, referring to these passages as "Scripture". The Epistle of Jude (verse 14) is also appealed to by Tertullian as a testimonial to the authority of Enoch. (see, De cultu feminarum. 1.3)

Tertullian's canon of the Old Testament included the deuterocanonical books, since he quotes most of them. He also cites the Book of Enoch as inspired, and thinks those who wanted to remove it were wrong. (Tertullian.org)

Barnabus, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origin and Clement of Alexandria were also fans of Enoch: The Book of Enoch was extant centuries before the birth of Christ and yet is considered by many to be more Christian in its theology than Jewish. It was considered Scripture by many early Christians. The earliest literature of the "Church fathers" is filled with references to this mysterious book. Second and Third Century "Church fathers" like Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origin and Clement of Alexandria all make use of the Book of Enoch. Tertullian (160-230 C.E) even called the Book of Enoch "Holy Scripture". The Ethiopic Church included the Book of Enoch as part of their official canon of the Bible. (Wikipedia Entry About the Books of Enoch)

4) The Epistle or Letter of Barnabas: Like some other major leaders, Barnabas quoted from Enoch, even using the term "Scripture" to describe Enochian passages. See, the Epistle of Barnabas, translated in the book Early Christian Writings -- The Apostolic Fathers, published by Penguin Classics.

5) Enoch is in the Bible: The ETHIOPIAN BIBLE INCLUDES THE BOOKS OF FIRST AND SECOND ENOCH: The Ethiopian Bible contains the books of Enoch (and several other surprising books once banned and thought to be forever lost), thus preserving this earlier understanding dating back to the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls and New Testament that viewed Enoch to be an inspired sacred text.

#enoch #ethiopian bible #Youtube

[sijivewecoce]

Book of enoch pdf charles litt

 BOOK OF ENOCH PDF CHARLES LITT >>Download vk.cc/c7jKeU

  BOOK OF ENOCH PDF CHARLES LITT >> Read (Leia online) bit.do/fSmfG

           whilst he preached the Gospel to the natives of Gaul. Charles Diehl entre os grandes bizantinólogos da virada dos séculos XIX/XX. Ele pôde. de FO Guimarães · 2011 · Citado por 2 — 4 As citações do livro de 1 Enoque presentes no trabalho foram extraídas do livro The Book of Enoch, de R.H.. Charles (1917), Tradução nossa com base na de I ENOQUE — The Book of Enoch, de R.H. Charles (1917), Tradução nossa com base nas traduções de Márcio Pugliesi, Norberto de Paula Lima e Elcio C. Ferreira. 29 de mai. de 2021 — The Biblical Qumran Scrolls Eugene Charles Ulrich - documento [*.pdf] The Biblical Qumran Scrolls Supplements to Vetus Testamentum The Text ABSTRACT: One of the potentials of art is to become a tool to focus on certain conflicts from new angles and articulate questions that cause an impact on theOrígenes, Teodora, Justiniano e o caso da reencarnação no II falhasespiritismo.files.wordpress.com › 2012/09falhasespiritismo.files.wordpress.com › 2012/09PDF Book of Enoch. The History of the Watchmen. The Egg and Serpent Symbol. Those Reserved for Greater Things. Moses meets his Master Melchizedek. de GFD Neto · 2013 · Citado por 4 — Manual. 3rd. ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consult Psychology Press, 1996. Enoch MA. Charles S. Coping with a medical malpractice suit. West J. Edited by R. H. CHARLES, D.Litt., D.D (1913). The Ethiopic Book of Enoch: A new edition in the light of the Aramaic Dead Sea fragments (Translation

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[didanawisgi]

"Preste" as the Emperor of Ethiopia, enthroned on a map of East Africa in an atlas prepared by the Portuguese for Queen Mary, 1558. (British Library)

Prester John (Latin: Presbyter Johannes) was a legendary Christian patriarch, presbyter (elder) and king who was popular in European chronicles and tradition from the 12th through the 17th centuries. He was said to rule over a Nestorian (Church of the East) Christian nation lost amid the Muslims and pagans of the Orient, in which the Patriarch of the Saint Thomas Christians resided. The accounts are varied collections of medieval popular fantasy, depicting Prester John as a descendant of the Three Magi, ruling a kingdom full of riches, marvels, and strange creatures.

At first, Prester John was imagined to reside in India; tales of the Nestorian Christians' evangelistic success there and of Thomas the Apostle's subcontinental travels as documented in works like the Acts of Thomas probably provided the first seeds of the legend. After the coming of the Mongols to the Western world, accounts placed the king in Central Asia, and eventually Portuguese explorers convinced themselves that they had found him in Ethiopia.

#Prester John #Ethiopian #ethiopia #ethiopians #ethiopian wife #ethiopian mythology #ancient egypt #Alchemy #magi #magician #Johannes #Oannes #merlin #Garima Gospels #Gospels of Abba Garima #Ethiopic Gospels #gospel of mary of magdala #John the Baptist

[crossdreamers]

The Little Known History of Transgender Christian Saints

Roland Betancourt, an historian of the first millennium and a half of Christianity, takes a look at transgender Christian saints over at Advocate. 

Given the current religious attacks against transgender people, it might be a bit of a surprise that Christian churches have celebrated gender variance as a sign of holiness. 

They did not use the word “transgender”, obviously, and might not have been supporters of modern day transgender activism. But Betancourt’s story proves that  gender identity  is not such a simple as some Christians would want you to believe.

Roland writes:

From the fifth to the ninth century, a number of saints’ lives composed across the Greek-speaking Mediterranean detail the lives of individuals assigned female at birth who for a host of different reasons chose to live out their adult lives as men in monasteries. 

The popularity of these stories across the Christian Mediterranean is palpably evident as they were translated into Coptic, Syriac, Ethiopic, Armenian, Arabic, Latin, and other European dialects.

For example, the night before her execution, the early-third century Christian martyr Perpetua had a dream about her impending death. There, Perpetua looks down upon her naked body, and exclaims: “My clothes were stripped off, and suddenly I was a man.” 

Similarly, in the early second century Gospel of Thomas, Jesus rebukes Simon Peter for suggesting Mary Magdalene is unworthy of their company, stating that He “will make her male” and that every woman who “makes herself male will enter the kingdom of heaven.”

Roland does not accept that this is solely the result of a negative view of women (although the lack of MTF saints may point in that direction).  There are after all a lot of female saints. – including the most esteemed of them all: Mary, the mother of Jesus. 

Moreover, there are too many details in the stories about saints, whose birth-assigned gender was female, yet lived out their lives as men, for this to be just a dismissal of female spirituality.

Despite extensive late antique prohibitions against women dressing as men, such as in the canons of the Council of Gangra in 345, in the Council of Trullo in 692, or even in Deutoronomy 22:5, these saints were venerated with due respect, demonstrating that even legal or Old Testament prohibitions did not impede the space for their worship and praise.

The potent transformations of the body as well cannot be disregarded, as these stories sought eloquently to describe how the saints’ secondary sex characteristics changed throughout their lives, detailing ... the withering of breasts, the ceasing of menstruation, and the darkening of skin.

Roland compares this to medical practices in Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. These were mainly targeting cis people, but there are examples of both “top” and “bottom surgery”.  In other words: The Christians could put their understanding of the gender variance of the saints into a broader medical context.

Roland concludes that we need trans affirming literatures that promote and champion the rich and complex history of gender variance in our world. Not only looking to modern authors, but looking deep into our ancient and medieval pasts to think about the place that trans figures have played in history.

See Roland’s book: Byzantine Intersectionality: Sexuality, Gender, and Race in the Middle Ages

The illustration is of St.Marinos (in red) being brought to a monastery by their father Eugenius. Marinos was assigned female at birth, but lived as a male monk. 14th century French manuscript.

#trans #transgender #history #christianity #saints #lgbt #lgbtqa

[ramon-balaguer]

I want to leave you tonight with a lil knowledge about GOD’s Word in Ethiopia before King James I of England had the Bible rewritten in English.

Ethiopia 🇪🇹 is a beautiful East African nation with beautiful people and culture that I’ve had the pleasure to traveled to and serve as a minister of The Gospel and missionary on a few occasions.

The name “Ethiopia” (Hebrew Kush) is mentioned in the Bible numerous times (thirty-seven times in the King James version), and is in many ways considered a holy place and about 5km away from Adwa, in the Mehakelegnaw Zone of the northern Tigray Region in Ethiopia, lies the Abba Garima Monastery, an Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Established in the 6th Century by one of the Nine Saints, Abba Garima, and built by King Gabra Masqal, the monastery is home to the two ancient Ethiopic gospel books: Garima 1 and Garima 2. Recent radiocarbon dating analysis dated Garima 2 as originating from 390-570, and Garima 1 from 530-660.

This makes the Garima gospels the oldest and most complete illuminated Christian manuscripts in the world.

Written in Ge’ez an ancient language of Ethiopia it’s nearly 800 years older than the King James Version and unlike the King James Bible, which contains 66 books, the Ethiopic Bible comprises a total of 84 books and includes some writings that were rejected or lost by other Churches. This manuscript, however, only contains the four gospels and the first eight books of the Old Testament. It includes the Book of ENOCH, Esdras, Buruch and all 3 Books of MACCABEE, and a host of others that was excommunicated from the KJV (my preferred version along with NKJV).

This Orthodox Tewahedo Biblical canon is a version of the Christian Bible used in the two Oriental Orthodox churches of the Ethiopian and Eritrean traditions: the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.🤔🙏🏼🌎 #REBTD 😇

[traumacatholic]

ኦሪት Octateuch, አርባዕቱ ወንጌል Gospels and Ecclesiastical works.

Unlike the King James Bible, which contains 66 books, the Ethiopic Bible comprises a total of 84 books and includes some writings that were rejected or lost by other Churches.

This manuscript, however, only contains the four gospels and the first eight books of the Old Testament. It was created in the 17th century, but is a replica of an earlier 15th-century manuscript.

The scribe who wrote the text and the artist who decorated it are unknown; however, it is likely that the manuscript was created in Gondar, probably for the local church, Dabra Birham Selasse, meaning ‘Mount of the Light of the Trinity’ which stands on high ground just outside the city. This church flourished under the Emperor Iyasu I Yohannes, under whose reign (1682–1706) Christian art and learning flourished.

#Ethiopian Orthodox #Christian #Christianity #Art #Catholic

[cma-medieval-art]

Single Leaf from a Gospel Book with a Portrait of St. Luke, c. 1440-1480, Cleveland Museum of Art: Medieval Art

Christianity arrived in Ethiopia during the 4th century, well before reaching northern Europe. Typical of icon and manuscript painting in Ethiopia, this leaf is decorated with bright colors and a joyous interplay of geometric pattern. The full-page miniature depicts the evangelist Luke, with his symbol, the Ox, within the arch above. The short text is in geez (the ancient Ethiopic language), and consists of the opening lines of the gospel of Luke. All manuscript and icon painting in Ethiopia was confined to monasteries; the painting style of this leaf relates it to the Ewostathian monastic community of Central Ethiopia. The artists of this community rose to prominence under the scholar-emperor Zara Yaeqob (1434–1468), who commissioned many of them to produce books and icons for the court. This leaf draws its inspiration from the most important monastic painter, Fre Seyon, who was enormously influential between about 1450 and 1500. Size: Sheet: 37 x 25 cm (14 9/16 x 9 13/16 in.) Medium: ink and tempera on vellum

https://clevelandart.org/art/1999.212

#clevelandartmuseum #museumarchive #MedievalArt #cmaopenaccess

[officialyourdailyinspiration]

When they heard these things, they held their peace, and glorified God, saying, "Then God has also granted to the Gentiles repentance to life." - Acts 11:18 | New Heart English Bible (NHEB)

When they heard these things Peter's vision at Joppa, and Cornelius's at Caesarea, and the wonderful pouring forth of the Spirit upon these Gentiles under Peter's sermon:

 they held their peace; and ceased contending and disputing with Peter, or blaming him for his conduct; for otherwise they were not silent, but made use of their tongues:

 and glorified God; praised his name, adored his rich grace, and gave him the glory of all the wonderful things related to them:

 saying, then hath God also to the Gentiles granted repentance unto life. The phrase "unto life", is left out in the Ethiopic version, which only reads, "God hath also given to the Gentiles that they should repent"; but it ought not to be omitted, being in the Greek copies in general, and of considerable moment, rightly understood; the Arabic version directs to a wrong sense of it, "perhaps God hath given also to the Gentiles repentance, that they may live by it"; the word "perhaps", is very wrongly put instead of "then", which affirms that God had given them repentance, whereas this makes a doubt of it; and upon a supposition of it, the version ascribes too much to it; for it is not by repentance that men live spiritually, but by faith in Christ Jesus; nor do they obtain eternal life by it, but by Christ; though true repentance is an evidence of spiritual life, and it begins with it, for as soon as ever God quickens a sinner, he shows him the evil of sin, and gives him repentance for it: "repentance" here designs the grace of evangelical repentance, which is attended with faith in Christ, as it was in these Gentiles, and with views of pardon in Christ, and which springs from the love of God, and this is "unto life"; is a repentance from dead works, and is attended with a life of faith, and issues in eternal life: and it is also a "grant" from God; it is not in the power of man's free will, who though he may have time and means, yet if he has not grace given him to repent, he never will; his heart is hard and obdurate, and no means will do without an almighty power; not the most severe judgments, nor the greatest mercies, nor the most powerful ministry; it is a pure gift of God's free grace, and a blessing of the covenant of grace: and this being given to Gentiles, shows that the covenant of grace belongs to them, as well as to the Jews; and discovers a false opinion of the Jews, that the Gentiles should not be saved; and answers the design of the Gospel being sent among them, whereby the doctrines both of repentance and remission are preached unto them; and opens the glorious mystery of the calling of them, and may encourage sinners of the Gentiles to hope for this grace, and apply to Christ for it, who is exalted to give it.                    

#peace #glorify #God #grants #gentiles #repentance #new life #Acts 11:18 #Acts of the Apostles #New Testament #New Heart English Bible #John Gill's Exposition of the Bible

[urbanhermit]

The following information about the Journey of the Holy Family to Egypt has been compiled from various Eastern & Western resources, predominantly the Apocryphal Gospels of Pseudo Matthew & St. Thomas, as well as from the Arabic & Armenian Infancy Gospels. Moreover, the Vision of Theophilus by the twenty-third Patriarch of Alexandria from the fourth century as well as the Homily of Zachariah, Bishop of Sakha, the seventh century was consulted. Finally, we have made use of the Coptic & Ethiopic Synaxaria (calendar of the saints) & several Muslim traditions. It has proven to be rather challenging to present the reader with authentic information about first-century Egypt since most traditions relating to the Holy Family’s Flight to Egypt were rendered between the tenth & thirteenth centuries. For more information, we recommend the very comprehensive & invaluable study 'The Holy Family in Egypt' by Otto F.A. Meinardus, The American University in Cairo Press 1986. St. Matthew tells us neither where the Holy Family abode in Egypt, nor how long their exile lasted; the Evangelist alludes only to the causes of their flight & of their return. Ancient legends relate that they remained absent two years from Palestine, & lived at Matareya, a few miles northeast of Cairo, where a fountain & a Sycamore tree under which they had rested emerged upon Jesus’ request. It is left to apocryphal legends, immortalized by the genius of Italian art, to tell us how, on the way, the dragons came & bowed to Him, the lions & leopards adored Him, the roses of Jericho blossomed wherever His footsteps trod, the palm-trees at His command bent down to give them dates, the robbers were overawed by His majesty, & the journey was miraculously shortened. They tell us further how, at Jesus’ entrance into the country, all the idols of the land of Egypt fell from their pedestals with a sudden crash, & lay shattered & broken upon their faces, and how many wonderful cures of leprosy & relief of demoniac possession were accomplished by His word. This wealth of legendary miracles arise in part from a mere craving for the supernatural, & in part from a fanciful application of Old Testament prophesies. https://www.instagram.com/urbanhermit.stl/p/CYBQeXxLEu1/?utm_medium=tumblr

[santmat]

PODCAST: The Case For The Book of ENOCH As Scripture (I, II, & III Enoch), and... The Ascension of the Soul -- Satsang Discourse for the Week of June 2nd, 2019 -- Spiritual Awakening Radio With James Bean @ Youtube: https://youtu.be/RLWNi9l9OFM

OR Listen to, and/or DOWNLOAD, the Podcast MP3 @ The Internet Archive: https://archive.org/details/TheCaseForTheBookOfENOCHAsScripture

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Below Are NOTES About Today's PODCAST (6-2-19):

The Books of First Enoch, Second Enoch, and Third Enoch ONLINE: https://archive.org/details/BooksOfEnochFirstSecondAndThirdEnoch

Behold, the scripture about Enoch the prophet, who communed with God and, while alive, soul traveled through the heavens, hearing heavenly sounds, seeing heavenly lights, colors, encountering many beings and visions. The Enochian literature represents some of the earliest scriptures of humanity articulating the off-world concept of soul travel, that human beings while alive can explore various heavenly realms, that indeed, it's is part of our spiritual journey that we do experience such visions, that this is intended to be the norm... part of our heritage, a paradise lost that can easily be found again... a mystical journey back to eden we're all invited to take.

As it says of Adam in the Garden of Eden existing, not physically in this realm, but in the Third Plane called Paradise, one of the inner regions of consciousness:

"I made the heavens open to him, that he should hear the angels singing the song of victory, and see the bright, radiant Light."

The Case for the Book of Enoch as Scripture

1) Enoch and the Dead Sea Scrolls: The book of First Enoch was part of the Dead Sea Scrolls Bible -- the Essene Library of Qumran in Israel. First Enoch was included amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls, in fact was one of the most widely read holy books at Qumran (400 BC -- 70 AD). This observation is based upon the large number of Aramaic Enoch fragments that have been found there. Many Jews were studying Enoch before and during the time of Jesus.

2) Jude Quoted Enoch in the New Testament: The author of the Book of Jude quoted First Enoch in his New Testament epistle (letter), a great canonical endorsement for the Book of Enoch by the Original Jesus Movement. The Bibles that bare the most resemblance to the Scriptures of Jude and the Original Aramaic-speaking Christians is the Ethiopian Bible, as well as the Dead Sea Scrolls-Essene-Qumran Bible. Jude not only quotes from Enoch, but also from the Assumption of Moses. Both Enoch and Assumption of Moses were recognized as Scripture by the Essenes; see more on the Ethiopian Bible below. In addition to Jude, Biblical scholars also have noticed many parallel verses and shared ideas between the New Testament and Book of Enoch, illustrating how influential the Book of Enoch was on Jesus, the authors of the Gospels and other New Testament books. The Book of First Enoch is an important key foundational text of early Christianity.

3) The early Church father Tertullian Referred to Enoch as "Scripture": The Early Church father Tertullian quotes passages from the Book of Enoch, referring to these passages as "Scripture". The Epistle of Jude (verse 14) is also appealed to by Tertullian as a testimonial to the authority of Enoch. (see, De cultu feminarum. 1.3)

Tertullian's canon of the Old Testament included the deuterocanonical books, since he quotes most of them. He also cites the Book of Enoch as inspired, and thinks those who wanted to remove it were wrong. (Tertullian.org)

Barnabus, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origin and Clement of Alexandria were also fans of Enoch: The Book of Enoch was extant centuries before the birth of Christ and yet is considered by many to be more Christian in its theology than Jewish. It was considered Scripture by many early Christians. The earliest literature of the "Church fathers" is filled with references to this mysterious book. Second and Third Century "Church fathers" like Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origin and Clement of Alexandria all make use of the Book of Enoch. Tertullian (160-230 C.E) even called the Book of Enoch "Holy Scripture". The Ethiopic Church included the Book of Enoch as part of their official canon of the Bible. (Wikipedia Entry About the Books of Enoch)

4) The Epistle or Letter of Barnabas: Like some other major leaders, Barnabas quoted from Enoch, even using the term "Scripture" to describe Enochian passages. See, the Epistle of Barnabas, translated in the book Early Christian Writings -- The Apostolic Fathers, published by Penguin Classics.

5) Enoch is in the Bible: The ETHIOPIAN BIBLE INCLUDES THE BOOKS OF FIRST AND SECOND ENOCH: The Ethiopian Bible contains the books of Enoch (and several other surprising books once banned and thought to be forever lost), thus preserving this earlier understanding dating back to the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls and New Testament that viewed Enoch to be an inspired sacred text.

Sant Mat Radhasoami Books — The E Library: Main Page — Portal—Contents — Index — Sections: https://santmatradhasoami.blogspot.com/2019/01/sant-mat-radhasoami-books-main-page-e.html

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In Divine Love, Light and Sound, Jai Sat Naam, Jai Guru, Radhasoami, Bandagi Saheb, Peace Be to You, James Spiritual Awakening Radio

God is the Ocean of Love, and Souls are Drops from this Ocean.

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#BookOfEnoch #LostBooksOfTheBible #Enoch #FirstEnoch #SecondEnoch #ThirdEnoch #SecretsOfEnoch #AscensionOfTheSoul #TheSevenHeavens #BookOfEnochTheProphet #Apocrypha #Pseudepigrapha #DeadSeaScrolls #Bible #EthiopianBible #Ethiopia #MaharshiMehi #SantMat #Sant_Mat #Radhasoami #PathOfTheMasters #JulianPJohnson #TulsiSahib #RaiSaligram #MaharshiMehiAshram #InnerLightAndSoundMeditation #SpiritualPath #Simran #Meditation #Kabir #SoulTravel  #Satsang #Sants #SantMatSatsang  #संतमत #राधास्वमी #संतमतराधास्वमी #SantMatRadhasoami #SuratShabdYoga  #Radha_Swami #Radha_Soami #Radhaswami #SantMatSatsangPodcast #JamesBean #SpiritualAwakeningRadio #Podcasts #Spirituality #MaharshiMehi #KirpalSingh #SantKirpalSingh #Gnostic #IshwarPuri #SpiritualTalks #SpiritualPodcasts #SpiritualRadio #SpiritualPoetry #Vegetarian #Vegan #God #Consciousness #ShriGuruGranthSahib #Poetry #Bhakti #InnerLightAndSoundMeditation #Religion #QuanYinMethod #Mysticism #Gnosticism #Mystics #Saints #ThirdEye #Naam #Shabd #India #Initiation #ThePathOfTheMasters #SoundCurrent #OutOfBody #NearDeathExperiences #Heaven #Ascension #HigherPlanes #OOBE #NDE

#book of enoch #enoch #enoch the prophet #ethiopian bible #ethiopia #third enoch #second enoch #secrets of enoch #first enoch #dead sea scrolls #essenes #ebionites #christianity #lost books of the bible #apocrypha #pseudepigrapha #religion #spirituality #meditation #gnosticism #mysticism #seven heavens #soul travel #sant mat #path of the masters #radhasoami #surat shabd yoga #inner light and sound #out of body #near death experience

[vanteism]

kerchoo | bts & lq

pairing: ot7 x reader x lightning mcqueen genre: s i n, car sex (literally) word count: 13k description: some people frowned upon your lifestyle, but many don’t know how a bottle of oil and willpower will get you what you need.

The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books")[1] is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans.

Many different authors contributed to the Bible. What is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups; a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents.[2] The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint; the Hebrew Bible is known in Judaism as the Tanakh. The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, and apocalyptic writings. Among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect.

Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups. Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of the Bible and sacred tradition, while Protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching.

With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time.[3][4] It has estimated annual sales of 100 million copies,[5][6] and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West, where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type.

Contents

1Etymology

2Development

3Hebrew Bible

4Septuagint

5Christian Bibles

6Divine inspiration

7Versions and translations

8Views

9Archaeological and historical research

10Image gallery

11Illustrations

12See also

13Notes

14References

15Further reading

1.1Textual history

3.1Torah

3.2Nevi'im

3.3Ketuvim

3.4Original languages

4.1Incorporations from Theodotion

4.2Final form

5.1Old Testament

5.2New Testament

5.3Development of the Christian canons

8.1Other religions

8.2Biblical studies

8.3Higher criticism

14.1Works cited

Etymology

The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the same word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία ta biblia "the books" (singular βιβλίον biblion).[7]

Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe.[8] Latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, "the holy books".[9]

The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "paper" or "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book". It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books")[10] was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books (the Septuagint).[11][12] Christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 CE.[7]The biblical scholar F.F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.[13]

Textual history

By the 2nd century BCE, Jewish groups began calling the books of the Bible the "scriptures" and they referred to them as "holy", or in Hebrew כִּתְבֵי הַקֹּדֶשׁ (Kitvei hakkodesh), and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy Bible" (in Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "the Holy Scriptures" (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía Graphḗ).[14] The Bible was divided into chapters in the 13th century by Stephen Langton and it was divided into verses in the 16th century by French printer Robert Estienne[15] and is now usually cited by book, chapter, and verse. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in earlier oral traditions.

The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, and it is known as the Codex Vaticanus. The oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin (Vulgate) Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, dating from the 8th century.[16]

Development

See also:

Authorship of the Bible

The

Isaiah scroll

, which is a part of the

Dead Sea Scrolls

, contains almost the whole

Book of Isaiah

. It dates from the 2nd century BCE.

Saint Paul Writing His Epistles

, 16th-century painting.

Professor John K. Riches, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, says that "the biblical texts themselves are the result of a creative dialogue between ancient traditions and different communities through the ages",[17] and "the biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers – political, cultural, economic, and ecological – varied enormously".[18] Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, says that the Old Testament is "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."[19] He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. Parallel to the solidification of the Hebrew canon (c. 3rd century BCE), only the Torah first and then the Tanakh began to be translated into Greek and expanded, now referred to as the Septuagint or the Greek Old Testament.[20]

In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from oral traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that:

Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, but the results have not been too encouraging. The period of transmission is short: less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Mark's Gospel. This means that there was little time for oral traditions to assume fixed form.[21]

The Bible was later translated into Latin and other languages. John Riches states that:

The translation of the Bible into Latin marks the beginning of a parting of the ways between Western Latin-speaking Christianity and Eastern Christianity, which spoke Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and other languages. The Bibles of the Eastern Churches vary considerably: the Ethiopic Orthodox canon includes 81 books and contains many apocalyptic texts, such as were found at Qumran and subsequently excluded from the Jewish canon. As a general rule, one can say that the Orthodox Churches generally follow the Septuagint in including more books in their Old Testaments than are in the Jewish canon.[21]

Former Prophets

The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointmen

KetuvimMain article:

Ketuvim

Books of the

Ketuvim

Three poetic books

Psalms

Proverbs

Job

Five Megillot (Scrolls)

Song of Songs

Ruth

Lamentations

Ecclesiastes

Esther

Other books

Daniel

Chronicles

Ezra–Nehemiah (Ezra

Nehemiah)

Hebrew Bible

v

t

e

Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים‎‎ "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.[35]

The poetic books

Hebrew

text of

Psalm 1:1-2

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").

These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

The five scrolls (

Hamesh Megillot

)

The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.[36]

Other books

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:

Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).

The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.

Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in the Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.

Order of the books

The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.

The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)

Tehillim (Psalms) תְהִלִּים

Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) מִשְלֵי

Iyyôbh (Book of Job) אִיּוֹב

The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)

Shīr Hashshīrīm (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon) שִׁיר הַשׁשִׁירִים (Passover)

Rūth (Book of Ruth) רוּת (Shābhû‘ôth)

Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av) [Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.]

Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Sukkôth)

Estēr (Book of Esther) אֶסְתֵר (Pûrîm)

Other books

Dānî’ēl (Book of Daniel) דָּנִיֵּאל

‘Ezrā (Book of Ezra–Book of Nehemiah) עזרא

Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles) דברי הימים

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b-15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.[37]

In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.[38]

Canonization

The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era.[36]

Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.[39] References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE.

Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..."[40] For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.[41]

Original languages

The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28) written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.[42]

Septuagint

Main article:

Septuagint

Fragment of a Septuagint: A column of

uncial

book from

1 Esdras

in the

Codex Vaticanus

c. 325–350 CE, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton's Greek edition and

English translation

.

The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE,[43][44][45] initially in Alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well.[46] It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.[47]

As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon.[48] Some of these deuterocanonical books (e.g. the Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.[citation needed]

Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st-century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis.[49] Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.[45][50] Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek – even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to Hebrew).[51]

The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament.[52] The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called Biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.[53]

Incorporations from Theodotion

In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic Text.[citation needed] The Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing 'just' happened."[54] One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.[55]

The canonical Ezra–Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra–Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B" – the canonical Ezra–Nehemiah – is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.[54]

Final form

Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151.

Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns"). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων—things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.[55]

Main articles:

Christian biblical canons

and

List of English Bible translations

A page from the

Gutenberg Bible

A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaicspeakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.

Significant versions of the English Christian Bible include the Douay-Rheims Bible, the Authorized King James Version, the English Revised Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Version, the New King James Version, the New International Version, and the English Standard Version.

Old TestamentMain article:

Old Testament

The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.[citation needed]

Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books

In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages.[citation needed] Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text.[citation needed] They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[58][59]

A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545–1563.[60][61] It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.[62]

Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until the 1820s. However, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament.

The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:[63]

Tobit

Judith

1 Maccabees

2 Maccabees

Wisdom

Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)

Baruch

The Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch Chapter 6)

Greek Additions to Esther (Book of Esther, chapters 10:4 – 12:6)

The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children verses 1–68 (Book of Daniel, chapter 3, verses 24–90)

Susanna (Book of Daniel, chapter 13)

Bel and the Dragon (Book of Daniel, chapter 14)

In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:[citation needed]

3 Maccabees

1 Esdras

Prayer of Manasseh

Psalm 151

Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:[citation needed]

2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles

There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.[citation needed]

The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:[citation needed]

Psalms 151–155

The Apocalypse of Baruch

The Letter of Baruch

The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes:[citation needed]

Jubilees

Enoch

1–3 Meqabyan

and some other books.

The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.[citation needed]

Pseudepigraphal booksMain article:

Pseudepigrapha

The term Pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented. The "Old Testament" Pseudepigraphal works include the following:[64]

3 Maccabees

4 Maccabees

Assumption of Moses

Ethiopic Book of Enoch (1 Enoch)

Slavonic Book of Enoch (2 Enoch)

Hebrew Book of Enoch (3 Enoch) (also known as "The Revelation of Metatron" or "The Book of Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest")

Book of Jubilees

Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (2 Baruch)

Letter of Aristeas (Letter to Philocrates regarding the translating of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek)

Life of Adam and Eve

Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah

Psalms of Solomon

Sibylline Oracles

Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch)

Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

Book of Enoch

Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired.[65] However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BC, and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BCE.[66]

Denominational views of Pseudepigrapha

There arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter even more, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are "apocryphal" are otherwise considered genuine.

Divine inspiration

Main articles:

Biblical inspiration

,

Biblical literalism

,

Biblical infallibility

, and

Biblical inerrancy

A Bible is placed centrally on a

Lutheran

altar, highlighting its importance

The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness". (2 Timothy 3:16)[81] Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:

the view of the Bible as the inspired word of God: the belief that God, through the Holy Spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the Bible[82]

the view that the Bible is also infallible, and incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters

the view that the Bible represents the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans

Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."[68]Fundamentalist Christians are associated[by whom?] with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.[83]

Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts,[84][85] and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings.[86] In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."[87] Most evangelical biblical scholars[88][89][90] associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture.[91] Among adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular translation.[92]

See also

Bible portal

Judaism portal

Christianity portal

Bible box

Bible case

Bible paper

Biblical software

Code of Hammurabi

List of major biblical figures

Outline of the Bible

Scriptorium

Theodicy and the Bible

#guys im so sorry #mine #bts #bts scenarios #bts reactions #bts angst #bangtan #bangtan scenarios #bangtan boys #bangtan seonyeondan #bangtan sonyeondan #bts smut #bts crack

[didanawisgi]

Summary

The Ethiopian Garima Gospels - both housed in Ethiopia's Abba Garima Monastery - are the oldest known illuminated manuscripts in existence, earlier even than the Rabbula Gospels (c.586, Laurentian Library, Florence) from Syria. Consisting of two separate 10-inch-thick books - Garima 2 (the older text) and Garima 1 (the younger text) - written on goat skin and decorated with colourful illustrations, these priceless masterpieces of Biblical art are written in Ethiopic, the ancient Semitic language of Abyssinia. Originally believed to date to the medieval era, about 1100, radiocarbon dating results obtained by researchers at Oxford University, under the umbrella of the Ethiopian Heritage Fund, shows that they actually date from between 390 and 660 CE. Garima 2, the older of the two books, is therefore the earliest known Christian decorated text in the history of illuminated manuscripts, as well as being one of the oldest versions of the early Byzantine Text of the Gospels. According to tradition, the gospel books were written and illustrated by Saint Abba Garima, who is reputed to have arrived in Ethiopia from Syria, in 494. However, the latest research suggests that they were written and illuminated a century earlier, using an iconography drawn from Egyptian art, rather than the Hellenistic art of Syria. In any event, scholars agree that the Garima Gospels are a unique contribution to the ancient art of East Africa.

Location

The Gospels are currently housed in the Eastern Orthodox monastery of Abba Garima, and neither manuscript is known to have ever left its confines, although given the fact that the district was occupied by Muslims from the 9th to the 14th century, it is possible that they were kept hidden in a local cave for safe keeping, then forgotten, and then rediscovered. The monastery is located some five kilometres from Adwa, in the Tigray region of northern Ethiopia. It was established by Abba Garima - reputedly one of the Nine Saints from Syria - and built by King Gabra Masqal in 560. Its scriptorium developed a reputation for the making of illustrated manuscripts and for the creation of religious paintings and other forms of religious art, such as ivory carving and stone sculpture. Reputedly, Abba Garima lived in the monastery, healing the sick and performing miracles, for more than 20 years.

Description and Characteristics

Garima 1 consists of 348 pages, beginning with 11 illuminated pages, including canon tables set in arcades, followed by the Gospel texts written in Ge'ez, the Ethiopic language of the Kingdom of Axum, which is the language of the Ethiopian Church. (Ge'ez script is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world.) Also written in Ge'ez, but by a different scribe, Garima 2 has 322-pages, including 17 illuminated pages, of which four are portraits of the Evangelists. The miniature painting which decorates both gospels is reminiscent of Byzantine Art, although this too is now thought to have been created in Ethiopia. Neither manuscript has a colophon. Significantly, the texts of the two Garima manuscripts are quite different; thus Garima 1, for instance, does not derive directly from Garima 2. (Note: The term "canon tables" refers to the system of dividing and comparing the contents of the four Gospels, which was used between late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. A summary typically appears at the start of the Gospels.)

See also: Byzantine Christian Art (c.400-1200).

The respective front covers of the Gospels are also exceptionally old. The Garima 1 cover - made from gilt-copper backed with wood (though missing its original precious stones) and decorated with a large cross - is believed to have been made at the same time as the manuscript. In contrast, the Garima 2 cover - made from silver gilt - dates from the era of Romanesque Illuminated Manuscripts (1000-1200).

See also: Goldsmithing & Goldsmithery (c.3000 BCE on).

Dating

Examined in 1950 by the British art historian Beatrice Playne, and in the 1960s by the French scholar Jules Leroy. Leroy dated the Gospels to about 1100, while another expert - Donald M Davies - dated them to about 700-900. The Dutch theological historian Rochus Zuurmond preferred the later date of 1000-1200, albeit with some contra-indications. In the 1990s Jacques Mercier a French expert in Ethiopian art, examined both manuscripts at the Abba Garima Monastery, from where in 2000 he was allowed to take two fragments for analysis and carbon dating at the Oxford University Research Laboratory for Archeology. Tests showed that one sample (taken from an evangelist page in Garima 2) dated to 330–540; while the other (taken from a different page from Garima 2) dated to 430–650. These dates are consistent with text comparisons with other Ge'ez Gospel works. Following these carbon dating results, Mercier completed a stylistic analysis of the works, concluding that both gospels dated to about 600 - a conclusion which concurs with Marilyn Heldman's estimate in the catalogue to the 1993 Exhibition "African Zion: the Sacred Art of Ethiopia". In November 2013, at a conference entitled "Ethiopia and the Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity: The Garima Gospels in Context", Mercier announced definitive radio-carbon datings, as mentioned in our opening paragraph, above. Garima 2 is dated 390-570; Garima 1 530-660.

Related Articles

• Early Christian Art (150-1100). Architecture, mosaics, sculpture, metalwork, illuminations.

• Irish Monastic Art (500-1200) Illuminated Gospel Texts & Metalwork produced in monasteries of Ireland.

• Medieval Christian Art (c.600-1200) History, types, characteristics.

• Book of Kells (800) One of the great masterpieces of Irish art.

• Christ's Monogram Page in the Book of Kells (800) Famous for its magnificent Celtic-style patterns.

• Medieval Manuscript Illumination (c.1000-1500). Book Painting during the Middle Ages.

Source: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/garima-gospels.htm#summary

#Garima Gospels #early christianity #gnosticism #gnostic #gnosis #Holy Saints John #John the Baptist #Religion #moses #art #art history #ancient egypt #egyptian #egyptology #egyptian mythology #Akhenaten #ethiopia #Ethiopian #ethiopians #wife of moses #Lost Keys of Freemasonry #rooster #illuminated manuscripts #boaz #jachin #pillars #illuminated manuscript #Abba Garima Gospels

[pamphletstoinspire]

Commentary by Cornelius a Lapide on Matthew - Chapter 9: 9-13 - Latin Vulgate

The Calling of Saint Matthew

Verses:

9 And when Jesus passed on from thence, he saw a man sitting in the custom-house, named Matthew: and he saith to him: Follow me. And he rose up, and followed him.

10 And it came to pass as he was sitting at table in the house, behold many publicans and sinners came, and sat down with Jesus and his disciples.

11 And the Pharisees seeing it, said to his disciples: Why doth your master eat with publicans, and sinners?

12 But Jesus hearing it, said: They that are in health, need not a physician, but they that are ill.

13 Go then and learn what this meaneth, I will have mercy, and not sacrifice. For I am not come to call the just, but sinners.

Commentary:

Verse 9- And as Jesus passed forth from thence , &c. Custom, in Greek, τελος, means revenue; from which telonium, the word here used by S. Matthew, means the house, or place where the sailors and merchants paid the tribute and customs dues upon their ships and merchandise. Here sat the publicans, who were the farmers and collectors of these dues. Hence the Persian version, instead of telonium has, in the house of payment; the Ethiopic has, in the forum, or market-place. Matthew was one of these publicans; whence it is probable that his house was at Capernaum, by the shore of the Sea of Galilee, at a point where the vessels touched. The Roman Senate and the people were accustomed to let the tribute which was due to them from their subjects for a stipulated sum.

Jansen, in his Harmony of the Gospels, says, that persons who have carefully surveyed the Holy Land, assert that the spot where Matthew was called is still pointed out, outside of Capernaum, near the Sea. Mark and Luke say that Matthew was sitting at the telonium, because, by this word, they seem to mean not a house, but a table, on which they were counting the tribute money.

Named Matthew.

Matthew names himself, both out of humility, that he might confess to the whole world that he had been a publican and a sinner, and also out of gratitude, that he might make known abroad the exceeding grace of Christ towards him, just as S. Paul does: “It is a faithful saying, and worthy of all acceptation, that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners, of whom I am chief,” (1 Tim. i. 15.)

Follow me:

Whom in Capernaum thou hast heard preaching heavenly doctrine, and confirming it by many miracles, and especially by that recent healing of the paralytic. He calls Matthew, already subdued by the fame of His miracles, says Chrysostom. Observe the condescension of Christ who calls Matthew, the publican, and so a man infamous among the Jews, not only to grace but to His family and intimate friendship and Apostleship.

And he arose , &c. Note here the efficacy of Christ’s vocation, and the ready obedience of Matthew. Hear what S. Jerome says about it. “Porphyry and Julian find fault in this place, either with the lying unskilfulness of the historian, or else with the folly of those persons who immediately followed the Saviour, as though they irrationally followed the first person who called them. But they do not consider that great miracles and mighty signs had preceded this calling. And there can be no doubt that the Apostles had witnessed these things before they believed. This at least is certain, the very refulgence and majesty of the hidden Divinity, which shone even in His human countenance, was able to attract to Him those who saw Him as soon as they beheld Him. For if there be in a magnet, which is but a stone, such force that it is able to attract, and join unto itself rings and straws, how much more is the Lord of all creatures able to draw unto Himself whom He will.”

Thus then as a magnet draws iron unto it, so did Christ draw Matthew, and by His drawing, gave him his virtues, and chiefly his exceeding love of God, zeal for souls, ardour in preaching. Listen to the account of S. Matthew’s conversion, which he himself gave to S. Bridget, when praying at his tomb at Malphi: “It was my desire at the time I was a publican to defraud no man, and I wished to find out a way by which I might abandon that employment, and cleave to God alone with my whole heart. When therefore He who loved me, even Jesus Christ was preaching, His call was a flame of fire in my heart; and so sweet were His words unto my taste, that I thought no more of riches than of straws: yea, it was delightful to me to weep for joy, that my God had deigned to call one of such small account, and so great a sinner as I to His grace. And as I clave unto my Lord, His burning words became fixed in my heart, and day and night I fed upon them by meditation, as upon sweetest food.”

Verse 10- And it came to pass as he sat at meat , &c. This was in Matthew’s own house, for he is silent about his virtues, outspoken about his errors. This appears from what Luke says, Levi, that is, Matthew, made him a great feast in his own house: to this feast he invited many of his companions, publicans like himself, and sinners, that they might be drawn by the kindness of Christ to follow Him, as he had done. It is indeed a sign of true conversion to be anxious that others also should be converted from their sins. For good is self-diffusive, and charity instigates men to seek the salvation of other lost sinners.

The office of a publican, although a just one in itself, and one that could be exercised without sin, yet, because avaricious men frequently undertook it from love of gain, who extorted unjust dues, especially from the poor, publicans were accounted infamous among the Jews, and public sinners, as public usurers are similarly accounted among Christians. There was this also, that the Jews maintained that they, as a people dedicated to God, ought not to pay tribute to the Romans, who were Gentiles and idolaters: for this was contrary to the liberty and dignity of the children of God. Thus they detested the publicans, who exacted the tribute.

Sinners are here distinguished from publican. These sinners seem to have been dissolute Jews, who cared little for the law and religion of the Jews, and lived in a heathenish manner, or who had apostatized to heathenism.

Verse 11- And when the Pharisees saw it , &c. These are the words, not of those who asked a question, but of those who were making an accusation. As much as to say, “Your Master Christ acts contrary to the law of God and the traditions of the Fathers. Why do you listen to Him, and follow Him? He associates with sinners. He is bringing the stain of their sins and infamy upon you.”

Verse 12- But when Jesus heard that , &c. from the report of His disciples. For even the Pharisees did not dare to make this charge to Christ Himself. He saith, not to His disciples, but to the Pharisees, for He turned Himself to those from whom the complaint proceeded, as is clear from what follows. They that are whole, &c. As a physician is not infected by the diseases of those who are sick, but rather overcometh diseases, and drives them away, and therefore it is not a disgrace, but an honour to a physician to be associated with the sick, so in like manner I, who have been sent from heaven to earth by God the Father, to be a physician of sin-sick souls, am not contaminated by their sins when I associate with them, but rather heal them, which is the highest praise to Me, and the greatest benefit to them. I therefore am the Physician, not the companion of sinners.

Verse 13- But go ye: that is, go away from Me; depart out of My sight. They are the words of one repudiating them. And learn, what Hosea says (vi. 6), I will have mercy and not sacrifice: i.e., I prefer mercy to sacrifice, although sacrifice is the noblest act of religion. Therefore follow mercy, even as I do, that ye may save sinners. For I prefer mercy, and to have pity upon miserable sinners, rather than with you to offer victims to God. See what I have said upon Hosea vi. 6, where I have commented upon the dignity and surpassing excellency of mercy.

Well does S. Bernard (Serm. 16 in Cant.).exclaim, “0 Wisdom, with what art of healing, by wine and oil, dost Thou restore health to my soul! Thou art bravely sweet, and sweetly brave, brave for me, sweet to me. Thy name is oil poured forth, not wine. For I would not that Thou shouldst enter into judgment with Thy servant. It is oil, because thou crownest me with mercy and loving kindness. It is indeed oil; for oil floats at the top of all liquids with which it is mingled: and thus it is a lively figure of that Name which is above every name.”

Verse 13- For I came not to call the just but sinners. So it is in the Vulgate. The Greek adds, ει̉ς μετανοίαν, to repentance. So too S. Luke, and the Arabic Version. This must be either expressed or understood. For Christ also called Nathanael, who was a just man. Also He called the Blessed Virgin, S. John, and Elizabeth, who were saints, to still greater sanctity and perfection.

Hilary, Jerome, Bede, &c., take the words differently, I came not to call the righteous, that is, those who proudly, but falsely esteem and boast themselves to be righteous, when they are in very truth sinners and hypocrites, such as ye are, 0 ye Pharisees.

#commentary on matthew 9:9-13

[eyeofhorus237]

The Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan is a 6th-century[1][2][3][4]Christian extracanonical work found in Ge'ez, translated from an Arabic original.

It does not form part of the canon of any known church.

Editions and translations

It was first translated from the Ge'ez Ethiopic version into German by August Dillmann.[5] It was first translated into English by S. C. Malan[6] from the German of Ernest Trumpp. The first half of Malan's translation is included as the "First Book of Adam and Eve" and the "Second Book of Adam and Eve" in The Lost Books of the Bible and the Forgotten Books of Eden. The books mentioned below were added by Malan to his English translation; the Ethiopic is divided into sections of varying length, each dealing with a different subject.

Content

Books 1 and 2 begin immediately after the expulsion from the Garden of Eden, and end with the testament and translation of Enoch. Great emphasis is placed in Book 1 on Adam's sorrow and helplessness in the world outside the garden.

In Book 2, the "sons of God" who appear in Genesis 6:2 are identified as the children of Seth, and the "daughters of men" as women descended from Cain, who successfully tempt most of the Sethites to come down from their mountain and join the Cainites in the valley below, under the instigation of Genun, son of Lamech. This Genun, as the inventor of musical instruments, seems to correspond to the Biblical Jubal; however he also invents weapons of war. The Cainites, descended from Cain the first murderer, are described as exceedingly wicked, being prone to commit murder and incest. After seducing the Sethites, their offspring become the Nephilim, the "mighty men" of Gen. 6 who are all destroyed in the deluge, as also detailed in other works such as I Enoch and Jubilees.

Books 3 and 4 continue with the lives of Noah, Shem, Melchizedek, etc. through to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in AD 70. The genealogy from Adam to Jesus is given, as in the Gospels, but including also the names of the wives of each of Jesus' ancestors, which is extremely rare.

Textual origin

The Cave of Treasures is a Syriac work containing many of the same legends; indeed, as Malan remarks, a whole body of stories expanding upon the Old Testament is found in the Talmud, in the Koran, and in other late antique texts.

Contradiction with the Bible

1st Adam and Eve LXXVIII:16[7] says "Then on the morrow Adam said unto Cain his son, 'Take of thy sheep, young and good, and offer them up unto thy God; and I will speak to thy brother, to make unto his God an offering of corn.'" while Genesis 4:2-3 says "And in process of time it came to pass, that Cain brought of the fruit of the ground an offering unto the LORD. And Abel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock and of the fat thereof. And the LORD had respect unto Abel and to his offering:".

Book 2 has discrepancies with Old Testament saint lifetimes:

Enos lived 985 years (2nd Adam and Eve XIV:4[8]) whereas the Bible says that he lived 905 years (Genesis 5:11).

Mahalaleel lived 870 years (2nd Adam and Eve XVI:2[9]) whereas the Bible says that he lived 895 years (Genesis 5:17).

Jared lived 989 years (2nd Adam and Eve XXI:13[10]) whereas the Bible says that he lived 962 years (Genesis 5:20).

See also

Life of Adam and Eve

Apocalypse of Adam

Testament of Adam

Books of Adam

#the bible

[confrontingbabble-on]

“It is a fact of Christian history that the earliest Gospels did not record a resurrection of Jesus Christ, and that claim is supported in the oldest known complete Bible available to mankind today. Called the Codex Sinaiticus, or Sinai Bible, it was named after Mt. Sinai, the location of St. Catherine’s Monastery where it was discovered in 1859 by Dr. Constantine Von Tischendorf (1815-1874). The discovery of the Sinai Bible provided biblical scholars with irrefutable evidence of wilful falsifications in all modern-day Gospels, and a comparison identified a staggering 14,800 later editorial alterations in modern Bibles.

Vast dating discrepancies...With the Sinai Bible, Christian history is traced back as far as it can conceivably go, but it was still written, at best, more than 350 years after the time the Vatican says Jesus Christ walked the sands of Palestine.

The ‘Catholic Encyclopedia’ agrees to this extraordinary late composition of the world’s oldest Bible: ’The earliest of the extant manuscripts [relating to Christianity], it is true, do not date back beyond the middle of the fourth century AD’. (‘Catholic Encyclopedia’, 1909, ‘Gospels’)

Hand-written on animal skins in a dead Greek language, the Sinai Bible was purchased by the British Museum from the Soviet Government in 1933 and is now displayed in the British Library in London. Sometime after its purchase, English-language translations were published (Manuscript No. 43725 in the British Library) and extraordinary new information about the earliest story of Jesus Christ became available to the world.

The great comparative value of the Sinai Bible as the world’s oldest available Bible is today universally accepted, and its discovery provided great embarrassment for the Church’s modern-day presentation of Jesus Christ, for it revealed that newer Gospels are the depositories of large amounts of fabricated narratives and intentional perversions of the truth.

Beyond belief...The Vatican concedes that Mark was the first Gospel written (‘Catholic Encyclopedia’, Farley Ed., Vol. vi, p. 657), and that it later became the prototype of the gospels of Matthew and Luke. In the Sinai Bible’s version of the Gospel of Mark, we see dramatic variations from its modern-day counterpart with an extraordinary omission that later became the central doctrine of the Christian faith … the resurrection appearances of the Gospel Jesus Christ and his subsequent ascension into heaven.

False Gospel passages written by priests...The Sinai Bible’s version of the Gospel of Mark starts its story of Jesus Christ when he was ‘at about the age of thirty’. No reference is made to Mary, a virgin birth, Joseph of Arimathea, a Star of Bethlehem, or the 51 now-called Old Testament ‘messianic prophecies’. Words describing Christ as ‘the son of God’ do not appear in the opening narrative of the Gospel of Mark (Mark 1:1) as they do in today’s Bibles, and the modern-day family tree tracing a ‘messianic bloodline’ back to King David is non-existent in the Sinai Bible.

No ‘resurrection’, no Christianity...The Sinai Bible’s version of the Gospel of Mark ends its story with Mary Magdalene arriving at the tomb and finding it empty. Yet, in modern-day versions of the Gospel of Mark, resurrection narratives now appear (16: 9-20), and the Vatican universally acknowledges that they are forgeries; ‘The conclusion of Mark is admittedly not genuine … almost the entire section is a later compilation’.(‘Catholic Encyclopedia’, Vol., iii, p. 274, published under the Imprimatur of Archbishop Farley; also, ‘Encyclopedia Biblica’, ii, 1880; 1767, n. 3; 1781, and n. 1, on ‘The Evidence of its Spuriousness’)

The Vatican claims that ‘the resurrection is the fundamental argument for our Christian belief’ (‘Catholic Encyclopedia’, Farley Ed., Vol., xii, p. 792), adding that a resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ is the ‘sine qua non’ of Christianity, ‘without which, nothing’ (‘Catholic Encyclopedia’, Farley Ed., Vol., xii, p. 792). St. Paul agreed, saying; ‘If Christ has not been raised, your faith is in vain’ (1 Cor. 15:17). Yet no appearance of a resurrected Jesus Christ is recorded in the oldest Gospel in the oldest Bible in the world. Nor are there resurrection narratives in any other old Bibles, for a comparison shows they are non-existent in the Alexandrian Bible, the Vatican Bible, the Bezae Bible and an ancient Latin manuscript of Mark code-named ‘K’ by analysts. Some manuscripts of the 15th and 16th centuries have the fictitious verses written in asterisks, a mark used by ancient scribes to indicate spurious passages in a literary document.

Resurrection narratives are also absent in the oldest Armenian version of the New Testament, and a number of Sixth Century manuscripts of the Ethiopic version. That is because the resurrection narratives in today’s Gospels of Mark are later priesthood forgeries.

Another Vatican forgery exposed...Adding to the Church’s on-going fraud of its presentation of the story of Jesus Christ, we learn how the Vatican accepted the fictitious resurrection narratives in the Gospel of Mark into its dogma and made it the basis of Christianity. Let the ‘Catholic Encyclopedia‘ bear the clerical witness: ‘When we turn to the internal evidence, the number, and still more the character, of the peculiarities is certainly striking [citing many instances from the Greek text]. But, even when this is said, the cumulative force of the evidence against the Mark origin of the passage is considerable. The combination of so many peculiar features, not only of vocabulary, but of matter and construction, leaves room for doubt as to Mark’s authorship of the verses. Whatever the fact be, it is not at all certain that Mark wrote the disputed verses. It may be that they are from the pen of some other inspired writer [!], and were appended to the Gospel in later times. Catholics are not bound to hold that the verses were written by St. Mark. But they are canonical scripture, for the Council of Trent [Session IV], in defining that all later parts of the New Testament are to be received as sacred and canonical, had especially in view the disputed parts of the Gospels, of which this conclusion of Mark is one. Hence, whoever wrote the verses, we say that they are inspired, and must be received as such by every Catholic’.  (‘Catholic Encyclopedia’, Farley Ed. Vol. ix, pp. 677, 678, 679)

Thus another Vatican forgery is exposed and confessed, and it was forced onto Catholics as genuine. Here we see incontrovertible documentary evidence that the earliest Christian Gospels fail to narrate a resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ, and it must be said that the pertinacity with which the work of suppression, misrepresentation and concealment of real Christian history was conducted makes the guilt of the successors of the founding presbyters as great as that of those who established the system.”

http://www.vatileaks.com/vati-leaks/a-glaring-omission-in-world-s-oldest-bible

#atheist #agnostic #secular humanist #skeptic #Religion #Christianity #religious insanity

[cma-medieval-art]

Single Leaf from a Gospel Book with a Portrait of St. Luke, c. 1440-1480, Cleveland Museum of Art: Medieval Art

Christianity arrived in Ethiopia during the 4th century, well before reaching northern Europe. Typical of icon and manuscript painting in Ethiopia, this leaf is decorated with bright colors and a joyous interplay of geometric pattern. The full-page miniature depicts the evangelist Luke, with his symbol, the Ox, within the arch above. The short text is in geez (the ancient Ethiopic language), and consists of the opening lines of the gospel of Luke. All manuscript and icon painting in Ethiopia was confined to monasteries; the painting style of this leaf relates it to the Ewostathian monastic community of Central Ethiopia. The artists of this community rose to prominence under the scholar-emperor Zara Yaeqob (1434–1468), who commissioned many of them to produce books and icons for the court. This leaf draws its inspiration from the most important monastic painter, Fre Seyon, who was enormously influential between about 1450 and 1500. Size: Sheet: 37 x 25 cm (14 9/16 x 9 13/16 in.) Medium: ink and tempera on vellum

https://clevelandart.org/art/1999.212

#cmaopenaccess #clevelandartmuseum #MedievalArt #museumarchive