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An Examination into the Parallels Between the Homeric Epics and Toxic Masculinity (Dissertation)

INTRODUCTION

The discourse on gender (in)equality tends to primarily focus on the oppression of women, and although this is rightly so, it fails to acknowledge the detrimental ways in which traditional notions of gender can heavily impact men. Gender refers to the attached cultural and social expectations placed on an individual based upon their biological sex. Similarly, gender roles refer to certain attitudes, personality traits and patterns of behaviour that is considered either appropriate or desirable for an individual of each sex (male and female). Although there are multiple genders with obvious exceptions such as transsexuals and non-binary, gender is usually placed into two boxes – the masculine and the feminine (Alters and Schiff, 2009). This thesis will be primarily concerned with masculinity – specifically toxic masculinity. Toxic masculinity is a deep-rooted issue within western civilisation and refers to both a concept and a term that strives to establish and address the harmful behaviours and attitudes that are well enshrined within traditional notions of masculinity (Barr, 2019). Examples of toxic masculinity are traits such as shame of emotional expression, hyper-sexualisation and misogyny, to name a few. In the first chapter (chapter one) I will be examining the importance of gender identity and the importance placed upon following the hegemonic notions of gender and gender roles. From this, I will further delve into the topic of masculinity and toxic masculinity and the ways in which official statistics from the UK (United Kingdom) can provide an insight into the ways in which toxic masculinity can damage men. In addition to this, although I previously stated that this work will be primarily focused on masculinity, I will also be evaluating some statistics on inequalities that women face, specifically in relation to male attitudes of women that could present an overall picture of what toxic masculinity is and why it is so toxic.

For the remainder of the thesis, I will be focusing on the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, written by Homer almost three millennium ago. The Iliad is considered to be the first substantial work of western literature and has heavily influenced subjects in the humanities such as literature, art and philosophy from the ancient Greek civilisation to contemporary society (Hammond, 1987). The Iliad encompasses a one-year period, concerned primarily with the final year of the ten-year Trojan war. Ultimately, the theme of the Iliad is the anger of Achilleus, as introduced in the first line of the poem, and the consequences that his actions have on the whole of the Achaian forces (Il.1.1ff). Similarly, the Odyssey is regarded as the second most substantial work of western literature and thus also influenced much of the humanities (Jones, 2003). The Odyssey essentially acts as a sequel to the events of the Trojan war and focuses on the journey that the Homeric hero Odysseus had to make in order to return home, as introduced in the first lines of the epic – similar to that of the Iliad (Od.1.1ff). The main theme of the Odyssey then is the hero Odysseus, just as the main theme of the Iliad is Achilleus. A major theme in both of these epics is that of gender, specifically, themes of masculinity. I argue that the traditional notions of masculinity that the modern west still upholds today can be traced back, or at least seen, in these two ancient pieces of poetry. The Iliad especially is seen as a ‘bible on ἀνδρείᾱ’, that is manliness or manly courage (McKay, 2020). Both epics explore what is known as the heroic ideal, which refers simply to a cultural idea of the perfect individual – a person who embodies all of the best qualities of a certain culture’s values. The heroes then that make up the heroic ideal are individuals which are admired for their courage, their outstanding achievements (especially in battle) and their noble qualities (such as their honour or leadership abilities). There are a multitude of characters both in the Iliad and the Odyssey that demonstrate the heroic ideal and what it means to be a hero. Many of the heroes (such as Achilleus) have to make personal sacrifices in order to achieve κλέος. Kλέος is the main of the Homeric heroes and is essential to the heroic ideal, κλέος simply refers to fame and glory (Alters and Schiff, 2009). In order to achieve κλέος the heroes often act in hyper-masculine and individualistic ways that are extremely characteristic of toxic masculinity. Literature, or in this case, epic poetry, is performative of the society and culture that it is conceived in and often it is a way for a poet, or author, to either reinforce certain ideals or to criticise them. Whether Homer’s ‘bibles of ἀνδρείᾱ’ worked to establish the hegemonic gender roles that were present in his time, or to criticise them also comes into question. Is Homer providing a manual of how to be a man or is Homer questioning the extremely restrictive ‘box’ of masculinity? This would be a thesis of its own and it is difficult to come to a definitive answer. Nevertheless, Homer provides us with evidence of what hegemonic traditional masculinity looked like (or how he perceived it to be at the very least).

When studying the discourse on gender, masculinity is often studied in parallel to femininity and are often always compared and contrasted. It could be argued that Homer also does this, whilst Homer portrays how (he believes or the culture that produced it) masculinity should look (in the ancient world) and how men should act, Homer also explores masculinity in relation to femininity. There are several utterances of effeminacy in the Iliad and the Odyssey. Effeminacy refers to a man essentially ‘taking on’ or displaying behaviours and traits that are considered to be traditionally feminine, such as delicacy, empathy and sensitivity (Oxford English Dictionary [OED], 2020a). In this thesis, I will be examining several characters such as Paris (also referred to as Alexandros) and the ways in which they are received by other characters. There will also be a section of feminine insults, where male characters are often compared to women and, particularly, girls. This is an important theme when tackling toxic masculinity as being compared to a female or showing aspects of femininity can draw various negative reactions.

Before drawing conclusions, I will also be examining the importance that modern men place on both the Iliad and the Odyssey. Many men today, not only it’s ancient readers, views the Odyssey and especially the Iliad as extremely important pieces of literature that they describe as ‘one of the most significant stories of manhood and manliness’ (Truehart, 2018e). Despite being written almost three millennia’s ago, it is interesting to see the modern man placing such importance on an anachronistic piece of poetry. Although it is fully possible to attach a certain profound importance on something that you read, should men really be using the Iliad and the Odyssey as a source of learning how, and what it means, to be a man?

CHAPTER ONE – MASCULINE IDENTITIES IN CONTEMPORARY UNITED KINGDOM

The perceived highest fundamental psychological needs that humans have is for a sense of identity (Maslow, 1942). Identity refers to who an individual is, what characteristics and qualities that they have that sets them apart from others, how they define themselves, how they act and how an individual presents themselves to the world (Little and McGivern, 2014). A sense of identity can be heavily impacted by external factors, such as our experiences and our physical environment. Essentially, humans define themselves in a way that is a self-representation of their interests, relationships and culture (Jones, 2020). An individual can spend a lengthy period of time trying to figure out who they are, what their interests are and what they believe in (Whittlestone, 2014). Having a good sense of identity can bring an individual both comfort and security, however, an individual struggling with their identity can often feel isolated and confused (The Children’s Society, 2020). On the other hand, sometimes having a strong sense of identity can be damaging in the way that an individual can become overpowered (Jones, 2020).

Gender, which is concerned with the constructed social and cultural differences perceived between the two sexes, is arguably the most important form of identity (Giddens and Sutton, 2017). Gender identity refers to an individual’s “internal experience of their gender” (Caldwell, 2019). Gender roles on the other hand refer to certain behaviours, manifestations and ways of being that are attached to certain genders (Ghosh, 2015). Although both different concepts, each work hand in hand, gender identity is how an individual feels and gender roles are notions that any given society or culture places upon each gender. Even though an individual may feel one thing, they may feel more inclined to act the way that society tells them to, or in a way that society deems acceptable. What is typically masculine and feminine has typically remained largely the same, across almost all societies and cultures, even over a large amount of time. Typically, feminine characteristics include empathy, gentleness, being maternal and nurturing, domesticity, to name a few. On the other side, masculinity is characterised by strength, leadership, assertiveness and courage. Both show two complete ends of a spectrum, with no overlap in the middle. The way that these norms are passed on is through the process of socialisation. Agents of socialisation – such as the family, schools, peers and the media – all systematically guide children in their internalisation of social norms and expectations attached to each sex (Giddens and Sutton, 2017). These are usually carried out with a process called canalisation – which uses negative and positive sanctions that the agents of socialisation impose to guide children to comply with traditional gender roles (Oakely, 2015). It is incredibly difficult for an individual to develop a sense of gender identity when society is constantly pushing you into a box of how to be.

Whilst gender can cause complications on the identity of oneself, gender is also a significant form of social stratification and can often lead to extreme inequalities between the sexes, effecting life chances and opportunities. Both historically and in contemporary society, men typically assume unequal positions in terms of power, prestige and wealth (Giddens and Sutton, 2017). Many patriarchal societies base the stratification of gender (as well as traditional notions of gender) on biological theories. Allegedly, men typically assume the higher positions in society because they have the innate capacity for dealing with higher roles, due to their natural-born physical strength and capacity for intellect. Women were/are also seen as the more ‘expressive’ sex, which allows them to more effectively act as agents of socialisation, providing support and warmth to children whilst also being more inclined to domesticity (Parsons, 1955). A cross-cultural study of 224 societies examined the responsibilities that were assigned to both men and women and it was found that men were more likely to hold roles such as hunting, mining and limbering. Whereas women were more likely to be responsible for cooking, caring for children and the making of clothes (Murdock, 1949). However, this was not the case for all society’s studies. Rather than men and women having innate differences, it is simply societies and cultures legitimising perceived differences between men and women. In thirty-six of the societies, women were responsible for certain perceived masculine roles such as land clearance. In another fourteen, lumbering was the responsibility of both sexes (Oakley, 2015). If gender roles were constructed on the basis of biology, then surely roles would be the same across all societies studied?

It can be argued, and is evidently quite clear throughout history, that the social stratification of gender and traditional notions of gender were established by men who hold authority. Within societies themselves, whilst women are often grouped together, there seems to be certain hierarchies of masculinities alone. In addition to this, there are often competing structures of masculinity (Rubarth, 2014). Masculinity, in its simplest form, refers to the approved way of being a man (Gilmore, 1991). Masculinities are multiplicitous and fluid and hold no fixed state, however, there is generally one dominating hegemonic masculinity that presides over all others in any given society, creating dichotomies between what is perceived as ‘normal’ men and ‘others’ (Jewkes et al, 2015). Hegemonic masculinity in the contemporary world (and also at the time Homer was writing) is mainly, and simply, characterised as men as a protector, a provider and the impregnator (Gilmore, 1991). Its key element is based upon a heterosexual man and their relationship with others – especially women – and these elements are crucial to a man’s identity (Cowburn and Dominelli, 2001). This very restrictive ‘box’ of masculinity can be incredibly harmful – not only just to women, but also to the men who do not share these characteristics such as homosexual men, gender non-conforming and transsexuals. Society telling you that you are only a man if you have the correct anatomy and are able to protect and provide for all those close around you can be severely damaging.

There are then obvious deep-rooted issues within (hegemonic) concepts of masculinity. This outlook on ‘how to be a man’ is so incredibly restrictive and often shames those who do not conform. There are clear deep-rooted issues within (hegemonic) masculinity itself, often referred to toxic masculinity. Toxic masculinity highlights the negative characteristics and qualities – often harmful behaviours and attitudes – that are embedded within hegemonic masculinity (Snyder, 2017). Now, it is not to say that men are toxic in themselves, rather, toxic masculinity refers to behaviours and attitudes that were once considered to be the ‘ideal man’ but as society progresses and develops, should these anachronistic views of masculinity still hold a place in contemporary society? Examples of toxic masculinity can include, but not exhaustive of: an extreme urge for physical, sexual and intellectual dominance, disgust and shame of emotional expression, extreme self-reliance and misogynistic and the hyper-sexualisation of women (and more often than not, girls) (Snyder, 2017). These traits are toxic in themselves, but when combined together it is like placing a ticking time bomb in the hands of a man – however, it could blow one of two ways – seriously impacting women or seriously impacting the man holding it.

The effects of toxic masculinity can be seen in statistical data from the UK. Arguably, characteristics such as an extreme urge for physical, sexual and intellectual dominance, as well as the hyper-sexualisation of women, can be seen in statistics related to violence against women. In the UK, around one in four women will experience domestic violence and abuse, whilst one in five women experience sexual assault at least once during their lifetime (Home Office, 2019). In March 2017, the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW), estimated that around 20% of women had been a victim of sexual assault from the age of sixteen, compared to 4% of men, equivalent to an estimated 3.4 million female victims and 631 thousand male victims (ONS [Office for National Statistics], 2018b). In the last year alone, an estimated 2.4 million adults aged sixteen to 74 experienced domestic abuse – of these 67% of those were female compared to 33% of those being male (ONS, 2019c). Women are extremely more likely to be victims of both domestic violence and sexual assault and this could be explained by elements of toxic masculinity that is prevalent in society. On the other hand, these statistics are never always truly accurate – they fail to log the ‘unreported’, simply because they are unable to do so. As many women do not report being victims of domestic abuse and sexual assault, neither do many men. Statistics from ManKind found that whilst one in six men will experience domestic abuse at least once in their lives, only one in twenty would ever seek help or report being a victim of domestic abuse until the problem becomes a crisis (BBC, 2018). Men tend to feel fear and shame in the way that they believe they would be perceived as less masculine, or would not be believed if they were to come forward. Many male victims of domestic abuse are also unaware that services for them do exist, however, they are at a drastically reduced rate compared to women (BBC, 2018). In terms of domestic abuse and sexual assault, toxic masculinity therefore is not always just an individual issue but also a societal one, society tells men that they should be stronger than a ‘weak’ female and should have the capacity to be able to deal with the situation. On the other hand, when a male displays toxic masculinity, we see women as the victims.

Although most inequalities are related to women (such as domestic violence and sexual assault), however there are multiple other statistics that highlight the disparities that men face. Firstly, across the UK men are less likely to live as long as women – with women outliving men by 3.7 years (aged 82.9 years compared to 79.2 years respectively). In addition to this, women are also more likely to live longer with poor health than men (ONS, 2018a). Secondly, men are also more likely to register as homeless, with around 62% of all those applying for homeless status being men (ONS, 2019e). On top of this, a staggering 88% of all deaths of homeless people (726 in 2018) were men (ONS, 2019a). The male suicide rate in the UK is also extremely high, of all recorded suicides in 2018 (6507), three quarters of those were men (4903). The male suicide rate currently sits at 17.2 deaths per every 100,000 men, which has increased significantly since 2018, whilst the female rate stands at 5.4 deaths per every 100,000 which has held a stable rate since 2007. The male suicide rate has been consistently growing since the mid-1990s, with the majority of all suicides being carried out by men (ONS, 2019d). Additionally, men significantly outnumber women in terms of receiving alcohol and drug treatments. Although there were difference statistics for each substance consumed, men generally held the highest percentage of those treated. For example, 60% of those receiving treatment for alcohol misuse were men, whilst 73% of those who were receiving treatments for drug misuse were men. Altogether, men made up 69% of the whole population that were receiving both alcohol and drug misuse treatments (Public Health England 2018). Men are also more likely to die from an overdose with rates of drug related deaths doubling since 1993. The rate of male drug overdose increased from 89.6 per million males in 2017 to 105.4 per million in 2018 (ONS, 2019d). In all the cases listed above, it is possible and credible to suggest that toxic masculinity could be a factor in numerous cases. For example, many men feel an overbearing sense of shame (and often disgust) at showing and feeling troubling emotions. More often than not, men are told to ‘man up’ or ‘take it like a man’, but when so many men turn to alcohol and drug misuse, or ultimately taking their own life, something needs to be done to address the grievances. Suicide is the biggest killer amongst men in the UK today, it says an astounding amount about not only masculinity and toxic masculinity but the damaged ways of modern society still desperately clinging onto traditional notions of masculinity.

Many men in the UK today struggle with their masculine identities and experience societal pressures to act and be a certain way. In 2018, a survey revealed that a staggering 97% of its respondents, both men and women, had a negative view of the term ‘masculine’. Only 3% of respondents associated masculinity with positive traits, such as respectfulness, care, kindness, honesty and supportiveness (Future Men, 2018). Furthermore, 53% of men between the ages od 18 and 24 felt that UK society expected them to never ask for emotional support, despite 66% of the respondents stating that they felt men should aspire to show more empathy (Future Men, 2018). 61% of men also felt that society expects them to ‘man up’ when faced with challenges, with 55% saying they would feel emasculated crying in front of others. Men also feel emasculated when they are unable to perform during sexual intercourse (49%) or even standing next to a woman who is taller than them (33%) (Future Men, 2018). Additionally, 54% of men felt that UK society expected them to be the breadwinner, whilst 67% felt pressured into displaying hyper-masculine behaviours (Future Men, 2018). It is evidently clear that toxic masculinity is well enshrined in UK society, even 32% of men believe that masculinity is in a crisis (GQ, 2018).

The ‘crisis’ of masculinity highlighted above is unequivocally linked to traits of toxic masculinity and it is evident that there are men in UK society that are struggling with traditional notions of hegemonic masculinity. Despite being a new concept, toxic masculinity has a deep-rooted place in the UK historically and as it is something that needs to be addressed. As society progresses and develops, masculine identities can no longer remain the same, holding on to traditional notions of masculinity and the anachronistic ways of being can seriously damage a male’s life chances, opportunities and their mental and physical health.

CHATER TWO – THE HEROIC IDEAL IN HOMER

As explored previously there is a difference between being male and being masculine, the former indicates an individual’s biological sex whilst the latter refers to performative gender roles. Although masculinities are fluid and can change from culture to culture, there are still many elements of homogeneity (Rubarth, 2014). Many of the elements and traits that characterise masculinity today can be seen in the ancient world. Humans as a species are enigmatic and are able to master the art of something before being aware of a term for it (Aamer, 2018). Traditional notions of masculinity come from idealism, a pursuit of ‘perfection’ of the male species, encompassing what a man should be, how they should act and how they should present themselves. One of the first few examples in western civilisation of humans portraying an idealised concept of masculinity is in Homer’s epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey.

An Introduction to the Iliad and the Odyssey

The Iliad, as mentioned in the introduction, is one of the first substantial pieces of work from western civilisation, followed by the Odyssey and each has had an extensive influence on subsequent literature (Hammond, 1987). Despite being produced at such an early point in history, the Iliad and the Odyssey are in no way primitive work’s (Donlan, 1970). The importance of the epics is highlighted by their long-standing presence in western societies, with both poems still being read, studied and interpreted today. The Iliad deals with one short episode of the ten-year Trojan war, spanning a total of 52 days in the final year of the war (Hammond, 1987). The Odyssey, on the other hand, deals with a ten-year period after the Trojan war (Jones, 2003). The prominent themes of the epics are the anger of Achilleus and the wanderings of Odysseus respectively, however, these introductory themes are not the only ones explored. Other themes encompass human existence, life and death, familial relationships, xenia (guest friendship), hospitality, wanderings, anger, reconciliation, κλέος (fame/glory) and τῑμή (honour) (Baker and Christensen, 2013). The importance of such themes will be discussed later in the chapter when considering the heroic ideal. In the meantime, it is entirely credible to suggest that (especially) the Iliad and the Odyssey encompass everything that is worth saying about Greek civilisation in terms of their values and ideals (Nagy, 2020). Evidently, the epic does not name the Greek heroes as Greek, instead coining them the Danaans, Argives and the Achaians. This may in some ways be a way of Homer creating an ‘epic distance’ between the Greeks of the heroic age and the age in which he is composing the poems, essentially creating a biography of the ancient Greeks and their archetypal and desired image (Nagy, 2020). For the purpose of this thesis, the ‘Greeks’ in the will be referred to as the Achaians or Argives to allow a separation from Homer and subsequent generations.

The Heroic Ideal

Both the Iliad and Odyssey explore what is known as the heroic ideal. The heroic ideal essentially highlights what could only be described as the ‘perfect individual’ – someone who embodies all of the best qualities of a certain culture. The heroic ideal in Homer’s poems explores several hero’s and their relation to humanity, how they act, how they define themselves and what is important to them. Ultimately, Homer is presenting us with an idealised view of masculinity at the time that he composed this. When talking about the ancient Greek heroes in the Iliad and Odyssey, it is important to note that they are heavily related to myth. Myths simply refer to narratives told of a previous time in order to describe event or an earlier history of a society (OED, 2020b). Ancient Greek myths were passed down from generation to generation to offer an explanation as to why the Greeks lived as they did and why they held certain values (Aamer, 2018). Many of the myths of the ancient world are about heroes - the term ‘hero’ can hold several meanings that can be attached to an individual on the basis of lineage, the era they are from and/or the behaviour that they exhibit. In antiquity a hero is a human who typically has prodigious strength, courage and abilities (Nagy, 2020). Heroes are also often descendants of the divine, sometimes having at least one divine parentage. Achilleus is a prime example of this as his father, Peleus, is human whilst his mother Thetis, is a sea goddess. Other examples include that of Aineias whose mother is Aphrodite, and Herakles whose father is Zeus (Morrison, 2003). Not all heroes have immediate divine parentage, as is the case with Odysseus – instead it was Odysseus’ grandfather Arceisius who was bore by Zeus. Whilst there are other heroes that do not have any divine ancestry, such as the Trojan hero Hektor (Morrison, 2003).

Regardless of parentage, however, all heroes are mortals, whether they are direct descendants of the divine (Achilleus), have partly divine lineage (Odysseus), or are descendants of mortals (Hektor). This characteristic of a hero is often an extremely important part of the narrative that they exist in. Mortality and the human condition are explored bountiful in the Iliad and Odyssey as it is something that sets apart these mortal heroes from the immortal gods (Nagy, 2020). Often a hero’s mortality is related to the essence of action, heroes needed to accomplish something in order to be considered heroic. The goal of Homeric heroes was to achieve κλέος (fame/glory) and they were characterised by τῑμή (honour), ἀρετή (excellence) and ἄριστος (being the best and bravest) (Morwood and Taylor, 2002). All of these elements are essential if one wants to be a hero (Pring, 2000).

Kλέος is often valued by the heroes more than their own life and is achieved when a hero engages in life-threatening pursuits, whilst τῑμή is determined by a multitude of factors such as: courage, physical abilities, the difficulties faced, a hero’s actions (ἀριστείᾱ), social status (linked to ἀρετή) and his spoils of war which leads him to be the bravest (ἄριστος) (Nagy, 2020). All of these elements are pertinent to what we call the heroic code, summarised by Hektor in the Iliad, “I have learnt to always be brave and to fight in the forefront… winning great glory for my father and for myself” (Il.6.444-5). The heroes of the ancient world are also described to be much physically bigger and stronger than any of Homer’s contemporaries (Griffin, 1999). As Homer states: “Tydeus took up a boulder in his hand, a huge great thing, that two men could not carry between them, of the folk that live now” (Il.5.303-4). Not only do the hero’s in Homer represent a number of internalised traits but also externalised, they are not only driven individuals with their own heroic code and strive for ἀρετή, ἀριστείᾱ, τῑμή and κλέος but they are also visibly big and strong.

Heroic Death and Running into Battle

Much of the Iliad sees heroism as a plot driver, with both the Achaians and the Trojans being introduced to potentially fatal situations where a kill or be killed mentally arises. However, this is for good reason. Although the Achaians are attacking Troy in order to retrieve Helen, they are also on the defensive. In Book 15, Hektor called out to the Trojans, “Bring fire, and raise the war-cry all together. Now Zeus has given us a day that repays us for all – the capture of the [Argives] ships” (Il.15.718-20). Here, the Trojans are attempting to set fire to the Achaians ships, if they succeed, it is wholly possible that the Achaians would be unable to return home and therefore the survival of their homeland is at stake. Aias echoes this, calling for his “Friends, Danaan heroes… be men… and fill your minds with fighting spirit… we have no city near us… far from our native land. So, salvation is in the strength of our hands” (Il.15.733-41). It is evident that the Achaians are not only fighting to protect their timé but also the very nature of their being. Heroic deeds and heroic death essentially came hand in hand in the way that a hero responds to a situation, incredulously brave and unafraid. One way for a hero to ensure that they can win great κλέος was to die a heroic death (Renehan, 1978).

In the Iliad, the fate of Achilleus is a prominent theme – mainly that of his forthcoming death – despite the fact that it never actually occurs within the confines of the poem. Achilleus’ fate is well known, he is either to die a glorious death on the field of Ilios or to return home and live a long well-founded life, dying of old age. Achilleus summarises his choice in Book Nine: “If I stay here and fight on round the Trojans’ city, then gone is my homecoming, but my glory will never die” (Il.9.408-9). Achilleus knows that if he is to die at Troy then he will gain everlasting κλέος, however, there is a sadness to Achilleus’ story. His fate is introduced in the first Book of the Iliad, when he utters to his mother Thetis “if only a life doomed to shortness, surely honour should have been granted to me” (Il.1.352-3). Thetis reiterates this, stating: “your fate is of short span, not at all long” (Il.1.416-17). We know that Achilleus has to make a choice and that it is completely plausible that he *could* live a long but quiet life, however, his fate is extremely locked in, we know all along that he will make the choice to die on the fields of Ilios gaining undying κλέος – an important part of being a hero then is accepting your fate and the fate that is more glorious.

A hero’s death, although a cause worthy of lamentation, it is justified multiple times and something that is deemed necessary – not only to win κλέος but to die for a necessary cause. Hektor legitimises a hero’s death in Book 5, stating “be men… and fill your minds with spirit for the fight… it is no shame for a man to die in defence of his country” (Il.15.487-96). Priam echoes this in Book 22:

“In a young man all that is decent if he is killed in war and lies there torn by sharp bronze – though he is dead all that is revealed of his is beautiful. But when an old man has been killed and the dogs are mutilating his grey head and grey beard and private parts, this is the most pitiful sight that poor mortals can see” (Il.22.71-5).

This is the epitome of the heroic ideal in homer, especially in relation to a heroic death, dying gloriously in battle for one’s country is idealised and so engrained withing the confines of the Iliad. Despite being idealised, though, it does not mean that hero’s do not struggle coming to terms with and facing their death. Alike Achilleus, Hektor also struggled to comprehend his fate when he is unable to escape from Achilleus when being chased around the walls of Ilios in Iliad 22:

“So now vile death is close on me, not far now any longer, and there is no escape… but now this time my fate has caught me. Even so, let me not die ingloriously, without a fight, without some great deed done that future men will hear of” (Il.22.299-305).

The heroic death in battle is idealised dramatically, despite the lamentations that come with facing your fate. Heroic death is touched on somewhat differently in the Odyssey than that it is in the Iliad. The deaths explored in the Odyssey have a completely different tone, such as the death of Agamemnon, who returned home from the Trojan war, was deceived and betrayed by Andromache and her lover (Od.4.512-37). In the final book of the Odyssey, we are presented with the ghosts of the hero’s that fought at Tory. Achilleus laments Agamemnon’s death, stating: “you too were to be visited in your prime by that deadly Fate which no man born can evade. How I wish you could have met your doom and died at Troy in the full enjoyment of honour due to you as our leader… instead you were doomed to die a pitiable death” (Od.24.28-36). Agamemnon’s death was hardly heroic and actually quite heart-breaking, he neither died a glorious death and he didn’t live a long graceful life dying of old age – instead he was murdered in his own home. Agamemnon recalls his death also and laments, “So even death, Achill[eus], did not destroy your name, and your great glory will last forever among all mankind. But after I had brought the war to a close, what satisfaction was there for me? For on my own journey home Zeus planned a miserable end for me at the hands of Aegisthus and my accursed wife” (Od.24.92-97). Important to note is that Achilleus wished for Agamemnon to die on the fields of Troy – as did Agamemnon – as this was the desirable death. However, Achilleus laments his own death – believing that “I would rather work the soil as a serf on hire to some landless impoverished peasant than be King of all these lifeless dead… If I could return for a single moment to my father’s house as I then was I would” (Od.11.489-503). Which is such a dramatic difference from the ways in which a heroic death is idealised in other places in the Iliad and the Odyssey. Odysseus however, was fated to die peacefully at an old age, but still achieved κλέος (Od.23.281-3)

Violations of the Heroic Code

Interestingly, Homer does not always present us with the idealised hero, he instead presents us with some limitations and contradictions. Both the Iliad and the Odyssey present us with two major characters, Achilleus and Odysseus, who are not archetypal heroes that submit to the same heroic code as others do (Morrison, 2003). Achilleus is the ultimate warrior of the Iliad, he is by far the best of the Achaians and his actions lead to the Achaians sacking the walls of Troy. However, despite his status, Achilleus is characterised by numerous poor personal attributes – he holds an exaggerated sense of self-esteem, an inflated ego, extremely sensitive, quick to anger, all of which is demonstrated plentiful in the poem (Donlan, 1970). Achilleus retires from fighting in the midst of battle, threatens to return home and watches on as his fellow Achaians lose in battle. In Book Nine, the embassy to Achilleus desperately try to tempt him back to battle, offering personal speeches and gifts. Achilleus denies their requests and states: “nothing equals the worth of my life – not even all the riches they say” (Il.9.401-413). Despite returning to battle later in the epic, Achilleus was seriously considering returning home to his father, marrying and living a long, but inglorious, life (Il.9.401-413). Leaving battle is the complete opposite of what a hero should or would do, all hero’s wish to gain κλέος but Achilleus does not seem to care. It is only when his dear close companion Patroklos dies in the battlefield does Achilleus return. If Patroklos did not die on the battlefield would Achilleus have ever returned to battle, or would he now be living a long and inglorious life? Much of the heroic code however is reinforced by public pressure, but Achilleus seems to not feel this so much. Hektor highlights this, stating: “But I would feel terrible shame before the men [and women] of Troy… if I like a coward skulk away from fighting. Nor is that what my own heart urges” (Il.6.441-3). The most revered warrior of the Achaians does not succumb to public pressure, or even his own friends begging him to return to the battlefield, this is not characteristic of any other hero in the epics.

Odysseus is also a fairly good warrior, often described more so for his trickery though, as Helen mentions in Book Three of the Iliad: “[Odysseus] is a master of all kinds of trickery and clever plans” (Il.3.200-1). Odysseus is smart, he is clever, but this seems to only be applicable in the Iliad, or on the battlefield. In the Odyssey, Odysseus is criticised for acting like and Iliadic hero, wishing to rush into battle with sounds of war cries – “Again [Odysseus is] spoiling for a fight and looking for trouble” (Od.12.113-4). For one who is considered to be a master of trickery and clever plans, he seriously lacks this whit in his wanderings and must learn to adopt a new attitude to survive in the world of Circe, Calypso, Charybdis and so on. Odysseus is so ready to rush into battle in a completely different world than he is used to and his folly ultimately ends with him losing many of his comrades throughout the poem (Morrison, 2003). Another of Odysseus’ tragic flaws is that it’s as if he needs to be known, for example in Book Nine, he shouts out his name to the Cyclops: “Cyclops, if anyone ever asks you how you came by your blindness, tell him your eye was put out by Odysseus, sacker of cities, the son of Laertes, who lives in Ithica” (Od.9.501-4). This would be completely characteristic in the battlefield; however, it is not the battlefield and Odysseus’ extreme urge for physical dominance and to be ἄριστος leads to severe consequences.

CHAPTER THREE – Effeminacy and Insults

The Iliad and the Odyssey, are deeply concerned with ἀνδρείᾱ and the poems constantly tell men to “be men” (Il.15.437 = Il.15.733). But yet, there are elements of effeminacy in both of the poems, that although do not need exist – certainly do. Effeminacy refers to men “looking, behaving, or sounding like a woman or girl” (OED, 2020a). Much of the effeminacy that we see in the poems are often related to insults, of which there are several. Paris is the most well-known example of the effeminised hero in the Iliad, who is often compared to his brother Hektor – this contrast may be there to distinguish the ‘good’ and masculinised hero compared to the ‘bad’ and effeminised hero, essentially providing us with a portrayal of a ‘real man’ (Ransom, 2011).

Insults

For this section, I will be focusing primarily on the Iliad, rather than the Odyssey, this is due to the Iliad’s extensive selection of insults and reprimands due to the nature of the poem. Many of the insults that we see often compare the male heroes to women, whilst others directly call the heroes women. The most significant of the effeminate insults is that of Thersites in Book Two, a man who is described as “loose tongued… full of vulgar abuse [and a] reckless insubordinate… hated most of all by Achilleus and Odysseus” (Il.2.211-2; Il.2.217-8). Thersites attacks Agamemnon, believing that he is leading the Achaians to disaster, stating: “My poor weak friends, you sorry disgraces, mere women of Achaia now, no longer men” (Il.2.234-5). Thersites is essentially telling the Achaian forces that they should no longer allow themselves to be ruled by Agamemnon and should return to their ships and sail home. A similar insult is reiterated by Menelaos in Book Seven, where he charges the Achaians with being weak, none of them wishing to step up and fight Hektor. Menelaos states: “Oh you braggarts, mere women of Achaia now no longer men! Oh, this will be ruin and disgrace indeed, the horror of horrors, if not one of the Danaans will now go face Hektor” (Il.7.96-8). In both of these instances, Thersites and Menelaos are outright laying charge on the Achaians, accusing them of being spineless. In this way, the two men are shaming the Argives for not acting like heroes, not acting like men – or how they believe men should act.

The heroes of the Iliad are not always simply referred to as women or are effeminised – they are also often compared to children. Both women and children have no place on the battlefield within the confines of these epics (and many today believe that women do not belong on the frontlines either). Therefore, both women and children are often employed as insults. This is seen in Book Two where Odysseus criticises the Argives who wish to return home: “Like young children or widowed women they wail to each other about their return to their homes” (Il.2.289-90). Another example is in Book Seven, Hektor refutes the insults of Aias, stating: “Aias… do not try to frighten me as if I were some feeble child or a woman without knowledge of war’s work. No, I know about fighting and the killing of men well enough” (Il.7.235-7). Comparing himself with that of a ‘feeble’ child and woman is employed as a way to masculinise himself, or at least highlight the differences between himself and women and children. In Book Eight, Hektor confronts Diomedes on the battlefield and shames his masculinity, stating that he is no better than a woman: “Son of Tydeus, the fast-horsed Danaans used to show you special honour, with price of place, the best of meat, the wine-cup always filled. But now they will scorn you – you turn out the be no better than a woman. Off with you, you poor puppet!” (Il.8.161-5). In this speech, Hektor is employing the way that Diomedes used to be revered – he is essentially shaming him for losing his ἀρετή, τῑμή, ἀνδρείᾱ, and no longer being ἄριστος – ultimately making him less than the lower classes of being in their food chain.

There are also insults related to action and inaction, mainly the way that it is frowned upon to be chit-chatting in battle rather than actually fighting. Men are seen as the most physically dominant and are more often than not ready to battle, women are seen in the opposite way – as idle chit-chatters. Aineias talks of this, in albeit a long speech, in the middle of battle – funnily enough, prior to his battle with Achilleus, stating:

“Son of Peleus, do not think you will frighten me with words as if I were a baby… since I cannot think we will part and leave the battle with no more exchanged than this childish talk… but come, enough of this talk – we are standing here at the centre of a furious battle and wrangling on like little boys… But what need is there for us to rase a quarrel out her and fling insults in each other’s faces, like a pair of women who have flown into a rage in some squabble that eats out their hearts, and come out into the middle of the street to squall abuse at each other, a torrent of truth and untruth, will anger prompting the false? I am ready for battle, and you will not deter me with words, not until we have fought it out face to face with bronze. So quickly now, let us try each other with our bronze-tipped spears” (Il.20.200-58)

The lengthy speech with spans a hefty 58 lines is somewhat ironic and it may be purposefully so, something that Homer included, providing an example whilst exploring the issue. Essentially feminising his own characters.

Beauty

Surprisingly physical beauty seems to be an important characteristic of the Homeric heroes where the ‘good’ warriors are often regarded highly for their physical being and is often a representation of who they are as a hero, however, it can also mean the opposite. So, for example, one who is not regarded as being physically attractive is also generally not revered a hero or a ‘good’ individual. This is especially seen in the case of Thersites, as mentioned in the section above, he is described here:

“But one man still railed on, the loose-tongued Thersites. His head was full of vulgar abuse, reckless insubordinate attacks on the king, with anything said that he thought might raise a laugh among the Argives. He was the ugliest man that went to Ilios. He was a bandy-legged and lame in one foot: his humped shoulders were bent inwards over his chest: above, his dead rose to a point, sprouting thin wisps of wool. He was hated the most of all by Achilleus and Odysseus, the two whom he constantly reviled.” (Il.2.211-18)

Thersites seems to not only be considered ugly in the physical sense but also in a personality sense too, amongst the Argives he is considered the ugliest physically and is hated by many for his brash personality. In terms of the heroic ideal then, Thersites definitely does not present us with an exemplary individual who should be revered, he is seen as one of the lowest in the Argives. Therefore, being physically undesirable or unattractive could be an outward representation of his personality.

So, then, it could be suggested that those who are physically attractive could possibly be considered to be an exemplum of a good hero. However, even when a hero is considered physically attractive, he is often subject to insults – as is seen when Glaukos insults Hektor. “Hektor, it seems, then, you are good for nothing but looks, and fall far short as a fighter.” (Il.17.142-4). In this passage, Glaukos is essentially saying that Hektor is empty of ἀνδρείᾱ and is only good for his physical appeal. This type of insult leads us on to Paris, the embodiment of a hero who is nothing but their physical beauty. In Book Three, we are introduced to Paris on the battlefield, who is challenging the ranks of the Achaians, looking for a duel. When Menelaos steps forward, Paris steps back and upon seeing this Hektor berates Paris, stating:

“Paris, you pest, good for nothing but looks, you woman-crazed seducer! If only you had never been born, or died unmarried. Yes, I wish it were so – and that would be far better than to have you the disgrace that you are and a creature of loathing to others. Oh, the long-haired Achaians must be cackling at this, saying that we put up a prince as a champion only for his good looks, when his heart is empty of strength or courage. Is this the man you were when you gathered your trusted companions and sailed out over the sea in your seafaring ships, mingled with foreign peoples, and brought back on board a beautiful wife from a distant land, a woman married into a race of fighting men – a great plague to your father and your city and all your people, to the joy of our enemies and your own shame? Will you not then stand up to the warrior Menelaos? That would teach you the measure of the man whose ripe young wife you have taken. There would be no help then in your lyre-playing and the gifts of Aphrodite, your long hair and your looks, when you have your reunion with the dust. But the Trojans are cowardly folk – otherwise by now they would have given you a coat of tones for all the harm that you have done”. (Il.3.38-56).

During this berating, we are able to highlight how in the Iliad, physically attractiveness often comes hand in hand with ἀνδρείᾱ and ἄριστος, however, Paris completely opposes this principle. Not only does Homer present Paris as ‘good for nothing but looks’, he also provides us with Paris as a coward. When drawing back from the frontlines once seeing Menelaos in Book Three, Homer uses a simile to describe his cowardness:

“But when godlike Alexandros saw Menelaos appear among the front fighters, his heart quailed and he shrank back into the mass of his companions to avoid destruction. As when a man sees a snake in a mountain glen, and starts backwards, and trembling takes over his limbs: he goes back again on his tracks, with fear set pale in his cheeks. So godlike Alexandros slipped back into the body of the proud Trojans in his fear of Atreus’ son” (Il.3.30.7).

Both Thersites and Paris portray elements that are extremely uncharacteristic of the heroic ideal and possibly provide readers with an example of the ‘bad hero’ – someone who men should not aspire to be. This is an important part of studying toxic masculinity and ἀνδρείᾱ, as it is essentially expressing how a man is considered when he does not fix into the ‘box’ of traditional notions of masculinity – these men should feel such shame and are constantly shamed for not fitting in with the heroic ideal. Insults and reprimands and feminised insults also work to shame the individuals on the receiving end, attempting to encourage them to be ‘better’ or to fit in with the status-quo and this can be severely damaging.

CHAPTER FOUR – RECEPTIONS OF HOMER TODAY

Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey have been used by modern men to reaffirm the qualities and features of traditional notions of masculinity, with many idealising the poems as manuals of masculinity (Sears, 2017). For the final chapter, I would like to examine a modern man’s blog and his thoughts on the Iliad and what this can tell us about modern receptions and the importance placed on them. More modern men have more to say about the Iliad than the Odyssey, which is not surprising as the Iliad deals more with the heroic ideal and ἀνδρείᾱ and has more explorations of traditional notions of masculinity.

The blog that I would like to look at is that of ‘Legends of Men’ – a blog kept by a man called Trueheart. Trueheart’s welcome page states that visitors have found themselves here as they “recognise the value of masculinity” and that “the popular narrative does not appreciate masculinity” – but yet, he does (Truehart, 2020). He goes on to ask the reader “Are you concerned about masculinity in our culture? Do you feel inspired to be more masculine? To fill your souls with masculine stories of inspiration and glory?” (Truehart, 2020). The main aim of the blog is to “help you every step of the way to be more masculine” – already there are parallels to be drawn with Homer, and increased sense of manliness and masculinity. Truehart explicitly wishes to examine masculinity in the modern world, especially in relation to literature and culture, he idealises masculinity and wishes to be more masculine (Truehart, 2020).

The Iliad

Trueheart presents five different ‘lessons’ on the Iliad, the first is essentially introductory and is titled ‘A Mans Guide to the Iliad”. This introductory lesson highlights why the Iliad should be considered an essential piece of literature for any man – mainly because the story is entertaining, but also because it contains multiple lessons about masculinity and has many important roles models – such as Achilleus, Diomedes, Aias and Odysseus (Truehart, 2018e). An interesting comment Trueheart makes about Diomedes is that, according to him, Diomedes has an astounding amount of bravery – so much so that he challenged the gods (Trueheart, 2018e). This is certainly not true and to the ancient Greeks and academics, this is something that is considered hubris – something that should not be celebrated. Hubris is essentially characteristic of toxic masculinity in that it is an extreme urge to overpower others, even those you should not and more often than not, this can place an individual in situations that are not ideal.

We are then presented with a list of ‘villains’ as Trueheart likes to call them: Paris, Agamemnon and Hektor. Now, it is interesting that he lists Hektor as a villain, and states that Hektor essentially demonstrates how not to be a man (although, he does not provide any further comments so it is difficult to know his opinion). As an academic who has studied the Iliad for six years, it is interesting to see a modern individual not sympathise with Hektor. Throughout the entirety of the Iliad, Hektor is forced to protect Troy – he is the leader of the Trojans and it is his responsibility to protect those inside the gates. All of this is brought on by his brother Paris’ folly, and is no fault of his own. In Chapter three, we saw Hektor berate Paris for his cowardly ways and retreating from a possible duel with Menelaos that could potentially see the end of a long ten-year war (Il.3.38-56). Hektor essentially was acting accordingly with the situation that was presented to him and it is unclear why Trueheart believes that Hektor does not display an ounce of good ἀνδρείᾱ.

In Truehearts second ‘lesson’, he delves into the topic of honour, believing that it is a concept that is not easily comprehensible for a modern audience as ‘it has become synonymous with integrity’ (Trueheart, 2018a). For Trueheart, honour is about reputation and believes that when a man’s honour is called into question, he will be suspectable to attacks and will be perceived as weak. He believes that meeting challenges to your honour can ultimately allow you to display your strength (Trueheart, 2018a). He interestingly notes that men today are more unlikely to defend their honour due to reprimands by the justice systems and the likelihood of being arrested on assault charges dramatically increase, with societies today frowning upon displays of strength. However, this is not the case and is extremely characteristic of toxic masculinity. The Achaians and the Trojans were fighting for τῑμή, yes, but they were also fighting for their very being – if the Achaians lost the war then many, if not all, would never return home. The Trojans, who did lose the war, lost their home and there were some who were forced to flee (Aineias, for example). In the modern world, there should be no reason for an individual to resort to physical violence in order to defend one’s honour – and I strongly believe that, in actuality, it is not about protecting one’s honour at all – rather, it is the extreme urge for physical dominance that is mentioned in Chapter One. This is extremely characteristic of a hyper-masculine male and not only does this pose a threat to the individuals that they surround but could also leave an aggressor being reprimanded by the justice system because they cannot present a rational argument or are unable to articulate and present their feelings – in a sense, they cannot use their big boy words. Truehearts hyper-masculinity continues in the second lesson where he presents with some very strange and uncomfortable views, which are evident in this screen-capture below:

The caption states: “A thousand years ago she would have been taken by a king or warlord. She may have liked it, but she wouldn’t have had a choice if she didn’t like it.” (truehart, 2018a). Although there may be some truth in what he is saying, the image that he uses and the language that he uses is very disturbing. In the world of the epics, many women are taken as ‘spoils of war’ – such as Briseis and Chryseis in the Iliad. Now it is not known how these women would have felt and how they would respond, but the sayings “she may have liked it, but she wouldn’t have a choice if she didn’t” is extremely perverse – especially as he is using a picture of a woman in a bikini.

In Truehearts third ‘lesson’, he summarises the main points he has made thus far:

1. “Protecting your honour is a constant battle to display strength, the most important battle a man can fight”.

2. “When someone insults you through your wife, you have you rescue that damsel in distress, for both your honour and hers”

3. “To lead men, you need to bring more to the table than others” (Trueheart, 2018b).

Each point that Truheart believes he has made are not very effective or persuasive and his use of the poems only seem to be used to legitimise his ‘arguments’. The ‘Legends of Men’ site does offer us though with a modern man who is portraying aspects of toxic masculinity – not necessarily the type that harms the men who are subscribing to these ideals, no, rather the men who are perceived as ‘weak’ as they do not subscribe to the type of hyper-masculine ideal that Trueheart portrays.

CONCLUSION

Over the course of this thesis, I have examined the ways in which there are toxic traits are engrained in traditional notions of hegemonic masculinity. As stated in Chapter One, there are many elements of masculinity that severely impact men in a multitude of ways, such as increased rates of male suicide, drug and alcohol abuse, with men today feeling that they are unable to show emotion for fear of shame from society and those that surround them. However, this becomes extremely apparent when there are individuals like Trueheart of ‘Legends of Men’, who reiterates all that is wrong with toxic masculinity – but yet presents it in a way that it seems admirable and desirable (for himself and his followers, anyway). But the reality is, no man should feel forced into the constricting restraints that is traditional hegemonic masculinity. We are living in the 21st century and we still hold onto an idealised concept of the men that were written over three millennia ago.

The ἀνδρείᾱ that is explored within Homer’s epics are extremely characteristic of toxic masculinity today. Although some elements of the heroic ideal and the heroic code are not experienced today as it was then, such as the heroic death, there are still parallels that can be drawn. The Homeric heroes are characterised by τῑμή, ἀρετή and ἄριστος – the very nature of these traits link directly to a modern man’s extreme urge for (at least) physical dominance over others. The heroes of the Iliad especially, and the Odyssey, are extremely self-reliant and are individualistic which often creates issues for themselves – as is the case with Achilleus, who felt so slighted by his quarrel with Agamemnon that he saw many of his comrades killed in battle. There is also a sense of shame amongst some of the heroes when thinking about going against the heroic code which creates a parallel to today where toxic masculinity teaches a man to feel great shame or even disgust if they are not acting in the way that society and cultures deem acceptable. These ‘bibles of ἀνδρείᾱ’ are heavily enshrined in the modern world – much like in the Iliad, women and children are used as insults, this is very much the same today. With hyper-masculine men shaming those who do not wish to be hyper-masculine, or those who just simply are not.

There are many lessons to be learned from the Iliad and the Odyssey, but these lessons should not be enshrined in the modern world and concepts of masculinity. Toxic masculinity is a deep-rooted issue in the modern world and it is something that needs to be addressed before it causes more harm to those that experience it. The Iliad and Odyssey should work as a reminder that as societies have progressed and developed, traditional notions of hegemonic masculinity should be challenged and should progress and develop at the same rate as movements like feminism and the civil rights movement. These poems are a part of history, and it will always be so, but we need to move past the toxic traits or it could ultimately be the downfall of many men – as it was in the epics.

10,148 words

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haytownsend · 7 years

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Research Paper

The Importance of Mythology Today By: Hayley Townsend April 10, 2017 Mrs. Tallardy, Block 3 From names, to the basics of the solar system, and especially in school courses, mythology is a common theme that has never truly lost its meaning. Greek and Roman mythology are some of the most common pieces of history that involves mythology, though there were other forms as well- most typically think of mythology as the Greeks. Other forms of myths stem from the Egyptians, American Indians, and Scandinavian, though almost every culture has some sort of mythological lifestyle in their history. There are even forms of Christian Mythology. Modern day stories tend to hook in the younger generations in either movies or books, helping children get more excited about a piece of history which has involved most of human nature. The Greek myth starts with nothingness- no life or substance. This was due to Chaos, who was in control of the universe and everything inside of it’s endless space. From Chaos came the Titans- and after the first two generations of Titans came the Greek gods. The Greek gods caused everything that existed in the world. For thousands of years, people have associated objects in the sky, the universe, and everyday items in our own household has linked to the Gods, Titans, Empresses and so forth. The word Mythology itself stems from the Greeks, who hold the most popular mythological tales. It comes from the Greek word ‘mythos’ for story-of-the-people (Mythology- Ancient History Encyclopedia). People might not follow every tale and myth as intensely as they were when they were originally written, though subconsciously people tend to involve mythology in their lives. Mythology, while not obvious, is present in today’s society more habitually than it is given credit for. Alongside the Christian Bible, the Greek and Roman’s myth is one of the most alluded to topics or pieces of literature in modern day writing. It has extensive influence on the arts and literature since 700 BC when the first written piece of written knowledge of Greek mythology came to be. Not taking into account of fictional series’ based on myth (Percy Jackson and the Olympians, Harry Potter, etcetera), it is easily found in pieces of literature nearly everywhere. The most famous poems and poets are referenced often, including but not limited to most of Homer’s work- especially the Odyssey. Homer himself alludes to other pieces of work- though that was a historical time. The famous author Plato is also a very common name in Greek Mythology and storytelling, though not much information has been collected about Plato himself. Researchers have evidence of his works, but not the author himself. Alongside Plato and Homer is Sophocles, who wrote 123 plays in the duration of his writing career, though according to an article about Mythology’s importance, “Sophocles was a tragedian and came up with famous tragedies like Oedipus, the King and Electra, and Antigone. Of his 123 plays, only 7 survived intact”(Milleff). These timeless authors manage to have their works stored through history, and despite being written thousands of years ago, still have relevance to today’s literature and writing. Common phrases and figures linked to mythology make it’s way into literature, and in regular human nature events. Authors, poets and artists from the beginning of mythology until today have often included supernatural entities, beings, and actions into their writing. Some do not even recognize the mythology in their own writing, considering the pieces of historical myths that are part of a common culture around the world by now. Though, it is rare for an author to not put in details from history on purpose, there are times where a figure or saying has simply became common enough to be referenced. For example, Cupid, a character often portrayed as a baby or young adolescent that had originated from Greek Eros and Roman Armor. Cupid in reality was pictured to have fallen in love with Psyche, and had a child named Pleasure. (Shakespeare’s Myths : Cupid). Cupid is blind and has fallen victim to love, making himself the star of Valentine's Day. Though Valentine’s Day is celebrated for Saint Valentine, it is mostly an ancient Roman and Christian holiday, having stemmed from mythology. Another example would include an “achilles heel” which stems from when the Greek character Achilles dipped into the river Styx to give himself the most powerful strength he could have- and when he dipped in, he had to focus on one single weak point for himself- his heel. Sometimes the Achilles Heel stands for someone who have a physical weakness, others with an emotional or mental weakness. The Trojan Horse is a common phrase in the English language as well, stemming from the story of the Trojan Horse being placed in a village the Greeks had been at war with, the horse being filled with soldiers there to assist in a battle. Since the tales of mythology are seemingly never-ending, it is unlikely to run low on ideas to surround mythology. Greek mythology in particular stemmed from the dark ages, which heavily influenced writing and cultures around the time it came to be. With the endless tales and cultures, mythology seems to truly be immortal. Taking into consideration that these myths have been transfigured into more child-friendly versions of themselves, the impact is still there. Every person has came from somewhere with a specific culture and ancestry that includes Mythology. The Greeks have Greek Gods, Italians, especially the Romans have Catholicism and Roman Mythology. Egyptians, Native Americans, Germans, Chinese and European cultures all follow a piece of supernatural occurrences that follow ancient myths through time that links up to who they are today. Though, to understand one’s mythological ancestry, it’s key to understand what a myth is. A myth is a traditional story, which typically dates back through history to a long time before the modern day story, some of which have lost meaning or have been proven false, and usually represented through a supernatural being or occurrence. Those who follow Christianity can follow the myths of prophets and disciples. It is told that Moses had held out a staff and the Red Sea had been parted by God. This being a story carried through history of the Bible and told through church groups, it is a supernatural event with a being that is quite supernatural itself, though cannot be proven either right nor wrong, and will have endless meaning through the tellings of the Bible and Christians. The definition of a myth can be complex by who perceives it. To scientifically inclined people, a myth is a simple valueless story, who were failed scientific reasoning for pieces of the world’s natural events. Myth is universal language, whether one believes the myth or not. To a person who would never step foot in any church or religious place of worship, myths are hidden in movies such as Spiderman and Star Wars and Lord of the Rings. “They share vicariously in the hero’s quest and go through a cathartic transformation. They follow the hero as he makes his moral choices and so decide (even unconsciously) that they live in a moral universe” (Longenecker). Longenecker in his piece had gone on about the importance to mythology to today, and how it’s growing in popularity as the “irreligious” age of people come to the surface of discovering mythology. According to the writer of the article, myth certainly does matter and make a presence into the world today. He explains how the examples set on watchers how to contain and prove their morals. More direct mythology based movies would include Disney’s Hercules, Clash of the Titans, and Thor. The influence is obvious in the movie telling format. Hercules and Class of the Titans stem from Greek Mythology, and the story of the demi-god Hercules while the Titans were some of the original powerful beings in the history of Greek Mythology. Thor stems from Norse Mythology, which is the tale of the Vikings and carried through classic superhero formatted films. These films are all widely popular and have all hit the box office with a large number of viewers, telling the tales that once were. Hercules is a story that carries through history- the story of a young demi-god facing every issue Hades had thrown at him, unaware at first of the powers he had been born with due to his father Zeus as he discovers his true life. These mythological stories otherwise would have not been told if not for the carried out stories, epic poems and tales. Despite the influences on modern day literature and movies, some people still believe that the art of mythology does not matter and that it should not be taught at all. Mainly religious families, along with those with little care for the specific piece of history. The debate of whether mythology should be taught at all in schools in a popular topic today. Many families who grew up in a religious household believe that teaching their children another form of religion may influence them in ways they do not wish for. Some families do not agree with teaching other children about the history and mythology of Judaism, Greek mythology, the Romans, and the history of Islam, no matter their influence on cultural literacy. “The more we argue the unimportance of cultural literacy among the general populace, the more we relegate the possession of this knowledge to the province of a socio-economic elite, thereby contributing to a hardening of social stratification and a lessening of social mobility” (Cultural Literacy). According to the author, he says that debating the subject of importance is unnecessary and only drives people further apart. The social posession behind knowledge is irrelevant when the “social mobility” drastically declines through the debate. Though the social mobility may decrease through debating such topics, this does not mean that the art of mythology is any less useful. It depends on who and what someone’s belief and lifestyle is. In today’s society, it is often forgotten how the presence of history affects everyone. Everyday manners change from person to person based on the tales that came from everyone’s ancestor’s timeline. While every living being has an ancestry that includes their own mythology, it is not always recognized as history as much as it is recognized as common day actions. Looking into the past, it is quite simple to find where habits and beliefs came from, alongside those figures that no one thought twice about when it is depicted into today’s world and actions. Though, mythology doesn’t quite get the credit it deserves for the presence into today’s world, the references are hidden into literature, traditions, and holidays. Works Cited Intercollegiate Studies Institute3901 Centerville Road, Wilmington, DE 19807 • Is a 501(c)(3) Organization under the Internal Revenue Code. ContactPrivacyTerms of Use. "Why Myth Matters." Intercollegiate Studies Institute: Educating for Liberty. N.p., 19 Jan. 2016. Web. 14 Mar. 2017. https://home.isi.org/why-myth-matters Jr, Bryan N Griffin, and March 2017. "Why Mythology Is Still Important Today." Parma Observer. Parma Observer, 2017. Web. 14 Mar. 2017. http://www.parmaobserver.com/read/2013/02/01/why-mythology-is-still-important -today “A Dictionary of Shakespeare's Classical Mythology.” Shakmyth.org, www.shakmyth.org/myth/70/cupid. Accessed 27 Mar. 2017. Went To Graduate School During The Height Of The Culture, et al. “Cultural Literacy: Is It Time to Revisit the Debate?” Cultural Literacy: Is It Time to Revisit the Debate?, Accessed 5 Apr. 2017. http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/HE/TA09CulturalLiteracy.pdf Mileff, Geri. "Why Ancient Greek Mythology Is Still Relevant Today." Owlcation. Owlcation, 08 June 2016. Web. 13 Mar. 2017. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Why-Ancient-Greek-Mythology-is-Still-Relevant-Today User, Super. “Why Myth Matters.” Catholic Education Resource Center, www.catholiceducation.org/en/education/catholic-contributions/why-myth-matters.html Accessed 9 Apr. 2017.

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