#nd they make 'trade routes' between the villages | Explore Tumblr Posts and Blogs

runephoenix6769 · 6 years

Text

Widowmaker one shot fic

In the aftermath of “Alive.” Taking some down time at her ancestral home, Widowmaker and Sombra discuss Tracer.

‘Reflections ‘

Between Numbani and Kings Row, she was too hot to move freely.

The sign of a job well done.

She grinned inwardly at the irony of the words as she lounged in the heat that as a child had seared her veal like skin, causing her to retreat to the cool shade of the grandiose and sweeping architecture that the alcoves offered. Such childish impulses no longer afflicted her, now she basked in the tendrils of flame that licked her skin and warmed her muscles.

She had intended to take a moment of respite, in this place that held gossamer whispers of a past life, but for Sombra, a well-stocked wine cellar had been too good of an opportunity to miss. The French woman was not naive enough to believe that her ‘friend’ had just casually dropped by, like an annoyingly over eager neighbour from the cobble stoned village that skirted the edge of the Lacroix lands, offering fresh pastries or cheeses.

Such was the illusion of her sanctuary.

It was an intrusion Widow was willing to tolerate, for now.

Keeping a mask of indifference, she was loath to watch, as in passing the Mexican hacker had flicked the wedding photo of a spectre and Gerard, stating “Nina, no esta mal.” followed by a playful knowing smirk and blink heralding that the image had been stored to memory, before routing through the bottles of the extensive collection within the cool cavernous arches in the bowels of the castle until she found something to her liking.

For now, Amelie Lacroix was intent on enjoying a glass of wine even with the annoying interruption.

The lake was still, save for the ripples of the bobbing fish and the concentric circles caused by her acquaintance trailing her toes in the cool waters that surrounded the Lacroix ancestral home. Silence occasionally broken by the hooting of some bird far off in the distance that Widow knew, if the urge took her, she could skewer out of the sky.

To the untrained eye and ear there was no wind shear to speak of. Perfect conditions for a kill shot.

She coolly observed a mallard alighting from the mirror like surface, counting in her head the wing-beats, the distance, and the trajectory. It was hardly a challenge, not worth wasting a high calibre bullet that would no doubt reduce the creature to little more than scraps often found within a pillowcase.

One,

Pump,

Two,

Pump.

Amelie closed her eyes, embryotic pinks mixed in with flashes of purple and blues, trailing her fingertips across the baked granite beneath her as she imagined caressing the trigger of Widow’s Kiss. A deep intake of breath through her nose and slowly out through her mouth, that could be akin to a sigh, as in her mind’s eye the bird faltered in mid-air before pin wheeling to the earth below. Widow felt a sense of peace.

A tentative slap on her ankle brought her out of her reverie,

“Mi amiga, no me oiste?”

“Je ne t’ecoute j’amais!”

They both shared a look before laughing.

An acquaintance out of necessity, not a friend, the annoying wisp of Amelie reminded. Widow leant forward offering the wine bottle, remnants of dust upon the label written in a language that was almost obsolete in the 22nd century stave for those few that knew it. Like taffeta clinging to a Madame, a sign of prestige and fashion long passed but no less regarded. Sombra waved off the advance.

“No , no, I have what I need here.” As she pulled a small net from the waters, “You can keep your pigs swill.”

Sombra continued to reel in her delights. The bottles of clear liquid, that in the 20th and the 21st century that had been available over the whole of Europe which was now difficult to come by and it had once been claimed was capable of running cars, tanks, staving off cold, fighting bears with AK47’S and eventually Omenics.

Widow watched as her acquaintance retrieved her preferred beverage from the cool depths, the bending of her back showing off the cybernetic hardware grafted to her skin. Curiosity got the better of the sniper,

“Does the water not short out your circuits?”

Sombra looked nonplussed, “Are you living in the 21st century, me amiga?” Dipping her legs further, she submerged her thighs as if to prove a point, “What good would it do if every time I took a shower I had to worry about such things?” Using her hands, she dramatically made a splash as she triumphantly claimed the bottle she was looking for.

She grinned whilst pouring herself a lavish dram, necking it back in a way that Amelie would cringe at but Widow understood.

“Only the best for Sombra!”

“There is no accounting for taste.”

“The Russian’s knew what they were doing. “

“Unlike now?”

“Mi amiga, in this fucked up world nobody knows what any of us are doing anymore!”

Widow tipped her head in agreement before lapsing into a comfortable silence. Toying with the stem of her wine glass, she ran through her head how each glass receptacle was either a concave or convex shape. Each glass shattered or broke in its own unique way. Each different type of tempered glass and liquid within bringing its own variables.

Sombra spread her hands showing a light screen video, the glare of the water making it almost unintelligible, she cursed under her breath. Between her delicate fingers and technological nails, the Talon operative tapped until she was satisfied with the contrast of the footage showing the exact moment of Widow’s triumph; the decommissioned Overwatch agent recognisable by the bright colours of her signature uniform, blinking in and out of existence, as the bullet slid like a needle through her chronal accelerator continuing into the forehead of the target.

One shot, one kill.

“Did you know she was going to do it?”

“Do what?”

“Her Marty McFly thing.”

The footage of Tracer patting her chronal accelerator with panicked fervency continued to play.

“Oui, I was counting on it.” Swilling the glass in the palm of her hands, she noted how the liquid briefly coated the sides, reminding her of venous spray. “Nobody wants to die, not even Heroes.”

For a brief moment in free-fall as the red brick buildings gave way, the sniper hadn’t been so sure, as she aimed through Lena’s sternum. In a split second where her and her rival were suspended in the air that had seemed to last for eons, she squeezed the trigger. Widow had found herself wishing for the British agent to blink as the recoil propelled her backwards. The tight feeling in her chest only abating as the exquisite moment of defiance gave way to broken resolve, before Tracer blinked out of time, only to come back with the pained realisation that she had somehow failed.

The youthful innocence that no one in their line of work had any right to possess, shattering into a thousand pieces. The lithe body of the ex-RAF pilot slamming her into the rooftop, as she demanded to know “Why?” The glossed coral shell coloured lips pulled back over gleaming white teeth, the flurry of expressions causing the smattering of freckles to chase each other across the bridge of her upturned nose and her huge doe eyes brimming with a myriad of emotions Amelie recognised but Widow was not meant to feel.

The memory brought goosebumps to her skin and a luxurious shudder down her spine.

Olivia Colomar slyly watched her through long dark lashes.

“What if she hadn’t?”

The thought reached into the recesses of her sternum, catching her heart in a vice like grip. Knowing every part of her behaviour was being catalogued and at some point could potentially be used to betray her. Widow remained aloof as she took a languid sip of her wine.

“Then ce la vie. I clinched an Overwatch agent.”

Like a gnat intent on committing suicide, the hacker pressed further,

“Why didn’t you finish her off?”

“I flung her off a roof.”

The hacker played grainy footage taken from a nearby surveillance drone, showing Widow making her way up the ramp into the VTOL as Tracer stood below.

“You had plenty of opportunity to finish the job.”

“She wasn’t the objective!”

“All former Overwatch agents are the objective.”

Those snatched, precious moments of life Tracer elicited in her, Amelie was not willing to trade and she often wondered just how much Sombra suspected about her strange fascination with the Overwatch poster girl.

Would it come to a point where she would have to be eliminated? She could do it now and have done with it.

Sombra broke into a toothy grin, raising another shot of clear liquid, “One shot , one kill.” She guffawed. “Should be more like, what do the English say? Two birds with one stone?”

One shot, one kill indeed.

Widow remained silent as Amelie asked, “Have you ever flipped a stone?”

The smaller woman rolled her eyes, shaking her head, “I had better things to do than throwing rocks into what little uncontaminated water we had. “

Widow uncoiled, feeling her bones crack and her muscles stretch in an altogether familiar way. Gracefully alighting from her perch, picking up a pebble, she weighed it in her hand. Her other hovering over the soft, exposed neck of the unsuspecting woman.

It would be so easy to push the smaller woman under the water, gripping her by the back of the neck, holding her down as she thrashed uselessly until bubbles ceased to break the surface. The French assassin could dig out the cybernetics in case they contained any tracking devices and discard them at her earliest convenience. She could wrap the body in a tarp and net, secreting her former acquaintance in the dark waters underneath the house.

But much like her first kill, it would be messy and lacking finesse.

The coding extraordinaire had her uses, that maybe one day the sniper would have a need for. Maybe for now Widow would sit back, safe in the knowledge that she was aware of the Los Muertos former member’s double dealing.

In the Mexican hacker’s own words, “Information is power, mi amiga, and no one can hide.”

A small reprieve.

Olivia would live to see another day.

Taking a stance, Amelie flicked the stone out, watching it as it curved before lightly kissing the surface, skimming the mirror of her childhood before disappearing into the inky depths.

One shot. One Kill.

#widowmaker #amelie lacroix #sombra #olivia colomar #overwatch #lena oxton #tracer #overwatch fanfic

9 notes · View notes

bunastudio · 3 years

Text

Fabric Lores: Chanderi

Often, the greatest stories dwell, waiting to be told and heard in the smallest of regions. In one such town, geographically tiny but historically of great importance lives a story that has been alive for centuries – that of the birth of Chanderi. From mentions in Rig Veda and Mahabharata to continued love for it throughout the Mughal era, later with the Scindias, and now in almost every other sari lover’s collection, Chanderi’s old soul continues to thrive in virtuoso hearts and the legend lives on in weaver villages. Home to historic monuments like the Bada Mahal Gate, the majestic Chanderi Fort, the Khooni Darwaza, nevertheless Chanderi town’s real claim to fame lies in its namesake fabric that puts it on the global map.

Several legends and tales of the birth of the royal fabric have captured public imagination. Legend has it that Lord Krishna’s cousin Shishupala, a member of the Chedi kingdom, which fell in the Bundelkhand division of Madhya Pradesh, was the first one to introduce the fabric. Some ancient records hold proof that the heartland of the country (Madhya Pradesh) was a weaving centre between 7th and 2nd century BC. By 11th century, it had risen to the status of a prominent trading centre due to its proximity to major ancient arterial routes. The 12th and 13th centuries had the royalty having the regal fabric being handwoven for them by mostly Muslim weavers. As the Mughals expanded their hold over the Indian sub continent, the love for the fabric reached peaks too. The mention of Chanderi fabric can also be traced in Maasir-i-Alamgiri written by Saqi Mustad Khan, a history of Emperor Aurangzeb that claims that the emperor ordered an expensive, soft & transparent cloth embroidered with gold and silver for making a robe. Pagdis and dhotis for the royal men were often made with Chanderi, the fabric of the royals. Further, records have solidified the fact that because of its sheerness, the fabric was a favourite among royal women and men in the 18th century and was even exported overseas.

Whatever be its origins, the tradition and craft of Chanderi hand weaving is up and alive. The demand and love for it is ever growing as more and more Indian designers go sustainable and rediscover traditional Indian crafts. The charm of the lustrous surface melting into gold and silver, the diaphanous quality, the subtle shine and soft grainy texture are just some of the reasons for its popularity. Besides, the fabric continues to receive royal patronage. Rajmata Shubhangini Raje Gaekwad often elegantly poses in a Chanderi saree for pictures, her daughter in law, Radhika Raje Gaekwad echoes her style in equally stunning Chanderis and poses with poise. In fact on the occasion of World Saree Day, Radhika could not resist from posting her picture in a zari, tissue Chanderi saree, one of the exquisite pieces from the collection of their own label Shubhanginiraje.

The women of the Gaekwad dynasty (of Baroda) have since long celebrated the spirit of Chanderi. Rajmata has played her own significant role in preserving the essence of the royal fabric. Since 2003, she has been hosting Chanderi sari exhibitions in Mumbai along with her daughter in law who calls herself a ‘textile revivalist’, to resurrect the regal heritage. The gloss and translucence wrapped around the royals has extensively been captured by Raja Ravi Varma in his depictions when he was invited by Maharaja Sayaji Rao II to paint portraits of the Gaekwad men and women. Like the Gaekwads, the modern royals, the Scindias too are better known for their role in Chanderi preservation and revivalism since early 20th century with Scindia women donning Chanderi saris.

But what lies behind perfecting this craft of royal wear is generations of skills preserved and passed down. Pure silk, chanderi cotton and silk cotton are its three main types that have been since ages adorned with simple motifs of coins, peacocks, fruits, flowers, and other forms of flora and fauna and more recently with abstract designs. At Buna, our Chanderi travels from the heartland of India, from its very source, Chander town, crafted by the Chanderi weavers that put their decades aged expertise into the creation of each masterpiece. We believe in contemporizing traditional crafts by creating postmodern designs and a minimal vibe. The techniques remain old but the results are new and fresh. For embellishing the royal fabric, nature dons its inspiration on our minds, and takes form as motifs like the booti inspired by a drop of rain.

In earlier times, the fabric was luxuriously woven with a very fine handspun yarn to preserve its grace and airy quality. Common weave patterns included dandidar border, ashrafi booti, chatai or ganga jamuni. The shimmer in its texture is born as silk and zari is woven together in a cotton yarn, while the bootis and motifs are the results of hand weaving with different needles depending on the motifs. The creation that comes out after the intricate craftsmanship is a sight to behold and speaks volumes about the rich Indian heritage. If MP is the heartland of India, Chanderi - its heartbeat. In an era that demands voice for what is one’s own, it is time to pay homage to India, the land of indigo, khadi, Chanderi and the richest textiles stories from around the world. Source:- Fabric Lores: Chanderi

#Chanderi #chanderisarees #chanderisilk #chanderisuit #chanderi weavers #chanderidresses #dresses #handmade dress #Fabric Lores #designer clothing #latest design dress

0 notes

sciencespies · 4 years

Text

Twelve Anniversaries and Events Worth Traveling for in 2020

https://sciencespies.com/history/twelve-anniversaries-and-events-worth-traveling-for-in-2020/

Twelve Anniversaries and Events Worth Traveling for in 2020

SMITHSONIANMAG.COM | Jan. 24, 2020, 1:50 p.m.

What better way to kick off a new decade than by planning a trip? If you’re hoping to fill the next ten years by seeing new sights, learning about other cultures, taking in history or relaxing on an endless white-sand beach, Smithsonian magazine has curated a list of destinations worth considering for 2020. Some will host once-in-a-lifetime athletic competitions (Tokyo and the Summer Olympics), others boast world-class art exhibitions (Rome and New York City) and still others allow visitors to experience wonders of the natural world (El Morro, New Mexico, or Ilha Grande and Paraty, Brazil). Read on, and happy traveling.

Japan’s new 68,000-seat National Stadium, designed by the architect Kengo Kuma.

(Arne Müseler via Wikimedia Commons under CC BY-SA 3.0 DE)

In 1964, Tokyo became the first city in Asia to host the Olympics, and this summer, the Japanese capital will serve as the summer Games’ venue once again. With the 2020 Olympics (July 24-August 9, followed by the Paralympics August 25-September 6) comes a brand-new, $1.43-billion main stadium built with timber from each of Japan’s 47 prefectures as well as five new sporting events: skateboarding, baseball and softball, surfing, sports climbing (think lightning-quick, spider-like wall-scaling—here’s a video) and karate.

Even without a coveted Olympics ticket—the Wall Street Journal recently forecasted that a Tokyo seat “looks like the toughest Olympic ticket ever”—Japan’s biggest metropolis has plenty to offer tourists: the bustle of Harajuku shopping district, the crowded-but-orderly Shibuya Crossing, conveyer-belt sushi restaurants, the traditional izakayas that line “Piss Alley,” a fashion exhibit at the National Art Center, views from 2,000 feet up in the Tokyo Skytree and the animated film company Studio Ghibli’s headquarters. 2020 also marks the centennial of Meiji Jingu, a mid-city oasis (volunteers planted 100,000 donated trees that have grown towering in the intervening century) and active Shinto shrine dedicated to a former imperial couple. Meiji-Tenno-Sai, the memorial day of Emperor Meiji, falls on July 30, during the Olympics; the 19th- and 20th-century monarch will be commemorated in a Shinto ceremony, and the affiliated Treasure Museum will waive its usual entry fee. In November, the three-day autumn festival at Meiji Jingu takes place. Expect to see traditional Noh theater, sumo, horseback archery and more.

Tokyo’s first time hosting the Olympics was intended to be 1940, but World War II disrupted those plans, and it’s that global conflict that led to another anniversary this year: 75 years have passed since the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The first (and only) use of nuclear weapons in war, the attacks killed an estimated 275,000 people. This devastating event for Japan is commemorated at the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, where a permanent exhibit lays out the belongings of many who died in the strike. The memorial itself—known as the Genbaku Dome—has been preserved exactly as the one-time exhibition hall looked in the immediate aftermath of the bombing. In the port city of Nagasaki, feel the weight of this history at the Atomic Bomb Museum and nearby memorial, the Peace Park and the Atomic Bomb Hypocenter Park, where a lone column pinpoints the spot above which the bomb burst. Both cities are accessible by a combination of shinkansen—bullet trains that debuted for the 1964 Olympics—and express trains.

(Corey Templeton via Flickr under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

On March 15, 1820, Maine separated from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and became the nation’s 23rd state. As a part of the Missouri Compromise, Maine joined the union as a free state, while Missouri entered it as a slave state, maintaining the balance between free and slave states in the nation. Now, Maine’s hosting a year-long birthday bash, commemorating 200 years of statehood.

Leading the state’s official commemoration is the Maine Bicentennial Commission, a group of politicians, curators, historians, educators and others organizing a series of events and offering grants to communities throughout the state looking to stage parades, lectures and exhibitions. Among the grant winners is Rockland’s Center for Maine Contemporary Art, which is presenting an exhibition this summer of photographer S.B. Walker’s visual record of contemporary life in Maine. On Statehood Day, March 15, the public is invited to musical performances and speeches—and to enjoy a slice of cake—in the Augusta Armory. The commission will also hold a Bicentennial Parade in Auburn-Lewiston on May 16, that promises to be chock full of state pride. Kicking off in Boothbay Harbor on June 26, the traveling Tall Ships Festival brings a month of dockside activities, such as concerts, fireworks and community races, as it makes stops in Rockland, Bangor, Brewer, Bucksport, Castine, Searsport and Belfast.

To soak up more of the state’s history, head to some of its many landmarks. Sitting atop the Munjoy Hill in Portland is the oldest maritime signal tower in the United States. Built in 1807, the Portland Observatory was tasked with sending signals to ships entering the harbor, but today, it offers visitors spectacular views of the city during spring months, when it is open for visitors. The Italianate Villa-style Victoria Mansion, in Portland’s Arts District, was built in 1860 as a summer house for wealthy hotel magnate and Maine native Ruggles Sylvester Morse. Opening its doors for the season in May, visitors can experience this national historical landmark with all its luxurious staircases and chandeliers.

One of the Raphael Rooms in the Vatican Museums in Vatican City.

(Juergen Ritterbach / Alamy)

Home to a rich history of classical art, Rome should be a destination on every art lover’s map. Among the artists that fell in love with the city, decorating its walls and chapels with masterpieces, is Raphael—a member of the great trio of High Renaissance art including Leonardo and Michelangelo. To honor the legacy Raphael built in Rome, the city is commemorating the 500th anniversary of his death throughout the year. The Ministry of Culture has organized a mega-exhibition, simply titled “Raphael,” at the Scuderie del Quirinale (March 5-June 2, 2020) that will feature more than 200 of Raphael’s pieces, including the famous Madonna del Granduca (1506-1507) and La Donna Valata (1512-1515). Jointly organized with the Uffizi, which provided over 40 works, the exhibition will include masterpieces never before seen together, on loan from Paris’ Louvre, London’s National Gallery and Madrid’s Prado among others. The celebrations of the artist are not limited to Italy, however; the National Gallery in London is running an exhibition from October 3, 2020 until January 24, 2021 that explores Raphael’s career through his masterpieces.

To fully experience Raphael’s artistic mastery, visit the four rooms in the Vatican Museums, filled with graceful portraits and ornate frescoes, that he and others in his workshop painted between 1508 and 1524. With religious themes and brilliant details, these rooms are the epitome of Italian high renaissance. Another destination that should not be missed is the ancient Pantheon in Rome—inspired by its beautiful architecture, Raphael requested it to be the place of his eternal rest. This spectacular temple has stood for over 2,000 years, and it is one of the best-preserved monuments of Ancient Rome.

Paraty and Ilha Grande, Brazil

Colorful doors in the colonial town of Paraty on Brazil’s coast.

(Christoph Diewald via Flickr under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

One of UNESCO’s newest World Heritage sites lies on the Brazilian coast between Rio and São Paulo. Paraty, population 43,000, was a port town once critical to the gold and slave trades, and it retains much of its 18th-century colonial architecture and cobblestone streets, making it “one of the best preserved colonial coastal towns in Brazil,” according to UNESCO. Trek up the Morro da Vila Velha hill to see archaeological sites, the first European settlement from the mid-16th century, as well as a fort built two centuries later.

The UNESCO-designated site also includes four nearby protected areas, famed for their biodiversity, that are home to jaguars, a myriad of rainforest frogs and mustachioed, pig-like mammals known as white-lipped peccaries. Travelers can relax on the undeveloped Lopes Mendes beach (for the outdoorsy, you can even hike from a nearby village to this sandy destination) on the island of Ilha Grande or kayak through mangroves near Paraty. Serra da Bocaina National Park, meanwhile, attests to the region’s history with a portion of the paved gold route, or Caminho do Ouro, and the ruins of a building devoted to weighing and taxing that gold.

About 12 miles from Paraty is the Quilombo Campinho da Independência. Quilombos are settlements, often in remote areas, founded by people who escaped slavery. This particular quilombo has a restaurant serving African-influenced Brazilian food as well as a handicraft shop. In the restaurant’s lounge, groups can listen as old and young quilombonas share their experiences (the conversations are translated into English or Spanish) in a “storytelling wheel.”

The capitol building in Nashville, where the 19th Amendment secured Tennessee’s crucial vote to adopt it into the Constitution.

(Jelle Drok via Flickr under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Nashville earned the moniker “Music City” for a reason, but the Tennessee capital made our list not for its fantastic music scene but because Nashville is where the decisive and dramatic vote to add the 19th Amendment—women’s suffrage—to the Constitution took place. Three quarters of the states needed to sign onto the 19th Amendment for it to be ratified, and in August 1920, Tennessee became the crucial 36th state. A young state legislator, Harry T. Burn, switched political sides following a persuasive letter from his mother and cast a tie-breaking vote in favor of suffrage.

A spate of performances and special exhibitions will mark the centennial. On March 27, the Tennessee State Museum will open an 8,000-square-foot exhibition tracing the state’s suffrage movement from its early, post-Civil-War days to the final vote, while the main Nashville Library is hosting its own “Votes for Women” exhibit, showcasing political cartoons and plenty of kid-friendly interactives. One block away, the opulent Hermitage Hotel, once the epicenter of pro- and anti-suffrage lobbying, displays objects from the political fracas, including a telegram congratulating famous suffragist Carrie Chapman Catt, who stayed at the hotel, on the victory.

youtube

Music lovers can also add suffrage-themed performances to the itinerary (along with Nashville classics like the Grand Ole Opry or Bluebird Café). In September, the Nashville Symphony will stage the world premiere of Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Julia Wolfe’s new suffrage-inspired work, played and sung by an all women’s chorus and full orchestra. On August 2, the Nashville Opera will put on a one-night-only event where talented local vocalists sing songs, like “Since My Margarette Became a Suffragette” and “She’s Good Enough To Be Your Baby’s Mother and She’s Good Enough To Vote With You,” used to fight for (and against) women’s right to vote. Nashville Ballet, later this year, will premiere 72 Steps, a newly choreographed work named for the number of steps to the Nashville capitol building that recounts the struggle for suffrage in Tennessee. For visual arts aficionados, the Frist Art Museum will display locally-made artwork inspired by Nashville residents’ personal stories about their first times voting.

Star trails above Inscription Rock in El Morro National Monument.

(NPS: Derek Wallentinsen)

Interested in seeing the Milky Way? Away from city lights, El Morro National Monument, about a two hour drive west of Albuquerque, offers a spectacular view of stars, galaxies and planets. In fact, the International Dark Sky Association recently named El Morro an International Dark Sky Park—a recognition that allows the park to host more astronomy-based educational programming and improve its energy efficiency through outdoor lighting upgrades.

Made even more awe-inspiring by a starry backdrop, the monument is an impressive record of more than 2,000 inscriptions dating back 1,000 years—petroglyphs carved by Ancestral Puebloans and signatures of Spanish settlers and later pioneers—on a 200-foot tall sandstone cliff. If the next couple events on the park’s calendar are any indication of what’s in store, there will be presentations on the hidden colors of the night sky, tours of the constellations and opportunities for visitors to observe these phenomenon for themselves through a telescope. The summer months, with warmer weather and greater visibility, will allow for even more activities, including a celebration of the Dark Sky Park certification.

Nelson Mandela’s capture site.

(Darren Glanville via Wikimedia Commons under CC BY-SA 2.0)

Africa’s southernmost country will commemorate two anniversaries tied to the apartheid era and the political struggle that ultimately ended apartheid and made South Africa a democracy. Thirty years ago, in 1990, anti-apartheid activist and African National Congress leader Nelson Mandela—at the time, arguably the world’s most famous political prisoner—became a free man after serving 27 years of a lifetime prison sentence for “sabotage” against the government. Mandela’s release in combination with a number of other events ultimately steered South Africa to its first democratic elections—open to South Africans of all ethnicities—in 1994, through which Mandela became president.

Spots that honor Mandela’s life and legacy crisscross South Africa. Robben Island, where Mandela spent the bulk of his time in prison holed up in a 7-by-9-foot cell, offers four tours daily, and visitors have the opportunity to learn from guides with unique credentials—they were former Robben Island political prisoners themselves. In April, long-distance swimmers compete in the 4.6-mile “Freedom Swim” from Robben Island to the shores of Cape Town. A two-hour plane flight away in Johannesburg, the Apartheid Museum traces how the state came to sponsor the system of segregation starting in 1948 and then, nearly 50 years later, dismantle it. (It also boasts an exhibition about the life of the man many South Africans call Tata—“father” in Xhosa—Mandela.) The roadside site near coastal Durban where police captured Mandela in 1962 is now marked with a remarkable steel-bar sculpture depicting the leader’s face in profile; upgrades to make the destination more tourist-friendly will be completed by August 2020.

2020 also marks 60 years since the Sharpeville massacre, when police opened fire on thousands of people peacefully protesting pass laws, which required black South Africans to carry identifying documents and limited where they could work or live. Police killed 69 and injured more than 180 people at the protest, sparking national and international outcry; Nelson Mandela and other African National Congress. leaders burned their own passes. March 21, the day of the tragedy, is now Human Rights Day in South Africa. Constitution Hill, a prison-complex-turned-museum in Johannesburg, will mark the occasion with a four-day Human Rights Festival with panel discussions, social-justice-related visual art and photography exhibits, performances, a human rights book fair and a groundbreaking for the Museum and Archive of the Constitution at the Hill, which the Huffington Post reports will document “the making of the South African Constitution—from its African origins in the fight against colonialism, segregation and apartheid until the present.” Visitors to the Constitution Hill museums can, as always, visit the cell Mandela stayed at while imprisoned at Old Fort and learn about the people who were held in inhumane conditions at the Women’s Jail and Number Four (where Mahatma Gandhi was once held behind bars).

During Prohibition, Green Mill was favorite speakeasy of mobsters like Al Capone, who the band would greet with a rendition of “Rhapsody in Blue.”

(Bruce Yuanyue Bi / Alamy)

On January 17, 1920, the Prohibition Act officially took effect, stipulating that “no person shall manufacture, sell, barter, transport, import, export, deliver, furnish or possess any intoxicating liquor except as authorized by this act.” With it came the nation’s “worst-kept secret”—the speakeasy. Now, 100 years later, the public is still fascinated by these illicit establishments where men and women gathered to drink bootlegged alcohol and listen to jazz.

By 1924, Chicago had a network of some 20,000 speakeasies. Given this high concentration, the city has become a popular destination for delving into Prohibition history. The Original Chicago Prohibition Tour takes people to the era’s most popular watering holes, while another option, the Chicago Prohibition Gangster Tour, caters to those more interested in the rise in gang activity and mob crimes during Prohibition—making stops at the site of the infamous St. Valentine’s Day Massacre and the location where notorious gangster and bank robber John Dillinger was killed.

Illinois is also celebrating the 100th birthday of one of its most famous authors this year, Ray Bradbury. The sci-fi author recently made news when the New York Public Library released a list of the most checked out books of all time—his dystopian novel Fahrenheit 451 ranked number seven. Born in Waukegan, Illinois, on August 22, 1920, Bradbury wrote upwards of 30 books and nearly 600 short stories in his lifetime. When he died in 2012, the New York Times declared him “the writer most responsible for bringing modern science fiction into the literary mainstream.” Set to open in August 2020 in Waukegan, the Ray Bradbury Experience Museum will educate the public on the sci-fi author’s life and honor his work with immersive and interactive experiences that interpret his creative works.

Palau’s 183,000-square-mile National Marine Sanctuary is home to an abundance of coral and fish.

(Yuichiro Anazawa via Wikimedia Commons under CC BY 3.0)

Travelers arriving in Palau, a freckling of islands in the western reaches of the Pacific Ocean, sign a pledge: “I vow to tread lightly, act kindly and explore mindfully,” reads the passport stamp. “The only footprints I shall leave are those that will wash away.” The statement, adopted in 2017, reflects the dive destination’s environment-first attitude.

In 2020, after five years of work, Palau’s new National Marine Sanctuary went into effect, protecting 183,000 square miles or nearly 80 percent of the tiny country’s waters from commercial fishing. The marine sanctuary is intended to protect Palau’s 1,300-plus species of fish and 700 types of coral but will not dictate where tourists can visit, a representative from the Stanford Ocean Center, which helped create a report for the Palau government on the planned sanctuary, assured Smithsonian. The country also became the first in the world to ban types of sunscreen (about half of the commercially available options, according to the BBC) that contain ingredients known to bleach coral.

Palau’s reputation as an “underwater Serengeti” is warranted; adventurers can snorkel alongside gentle, non-stinging golden jellyfish in the aptly-named Jellyfish Lake, marvel at the giant clam inhabitants of Clam City, or (for experienced divers) spot reef sharks at the Blue Corner. The Rock Islands—uninhabited, vegetation-shrouded outcroppings that are a haven for nearly 400 coral species—are also well worth a visit. The 445 mushroom-shaped islands were proclaimed a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.

While the majority of tourists partake in the nation’s aquatic attractions, the islands have offerings for landlubbers too. On Babeldaob, the largest island, travelers can hike through the jungle to the thundering Ngardmau Waterfall—the highest in Micronesia. World War II buffs might want to tour Peleliu, an island where rusty plane wrecks and weapons attest to a fierce 1944 battle between the U.S. and Japan over its airstrip.

(Dumphasizer via Flickr under CC BY-SA 2.0)

In 1620, the Mayflower embarked on a voyage from Plymouth, England to the New World. Upon arrival on the shores of what is now Provincetown, Massachusetts, the pilgrims signed the Mayflower Compact—a governing document believed by many to have been an early influence for the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. After spending five weeks exploring the area, the colonists sailed across Cape Cod Bay to Plymouth, where they established the Plymouth Colony.

To mark the 400th anniversary of these events, celebrations will be held on both sides of the Atlantic. Plymouth, England, is organizing a multitude of events, from a Mayflower Ceremony on September 16 (the date of the ship’s departure four centuries ago) to a “Mayflower 400: Legend and Legacy” exhibition at The Box, a new museum opening this spring. Meanwhile, in Massachusetts, the Pilgrim Monument and Provincetown Museum (PMPM) has organized a series of commemoration activities, kicking off with an opening ceremony on April 24 in Plymouth and featuring a historical reenactment of the signing of the Mayflower Compact on September 13 on Provincetown’s MacMillan Pier. Provincetown 400, as the series is called, aims to retell the history of Plymouth Colony from both perspectives, the Mayflower Pilgrims and the Wampanoag nation.

As a part of the 400th anniversary celebration, Mayflower II, a full-scale reproduction of the sailing vessel that carried the English colonists in 1620, will sail from Plymouth, where it sits as an exhibit in the Plimoth Plantation, to Provincetown, Massachusetts, on September 10, 2020. “We expect thousands to come to Provincetown to visit Mayflower II and to learn about the beginning of the Pilgrims’ story,” said Dr. K. David Weidner, executive director of the PMPM.

The Beethoven House in Bonn, Germany.

(Thomas Depenbusch via Flickr under CC BY 2.0)

Widely known as the City of Beethoven, Bonn is pulling out all the stops for the 250th anniversary of the classical composer’s birth. Born in 1770 (his real birthday, still a matter of speculation, is believed to be a day before his recorded baptism on December 17), Ludwig van Beethoven lived in this German city until he moved to Vienna at age 22. The house where Beethoven was born and raised for the first few years of his life—known today as Beethoven Haus—is still standing and a popular attraction in the city. Built in the 18th century, the home recently underwent a 10-month long renovation and reopened in December, with its permanent exhibit including instruments, scores and notebooks used by the composer.

The Beethoven Anniversary Society have planned BTHVN2020, a year-long calendar of concerts and tributes across Germany dedicated to the life and achievements of the composer. An estimated 1,000 performances and events are taking place between now and December 17, 2020 in Germany, with the majority of them happening in Bonn. The two-day “Beethoven Bürgfest,” beginning August 14, 2020, will trace Beethoven’s life in Bonn, feature musical performances and remember the 1845 unveiling of the bronze Beethoven monument in Bonn’s city center. The year of celebration will close with a concert held in Bonn’s parliament building, as a tribute to the political significance of the composer’s work—the European Union anthem is based on “Ode to Joy” from Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony.

The Met’s famous 5th Avenue entrance.

(Courtesy of the Met)

New York City’s most visited museum—the Metropolitan Museum of Art—is celebrating the 150th anniversary of its incorporation and very first acquisition, a Roman sarcophagus. Both events occurred four short years after lawyer John Jay first floated the idea to a circle of American friends while in Paris and wooed philanthropists and art collectors to support his fledgling museum. While the sesquicentennial doesn’t mean the Met Gala is opening to the public, the museum is hosting a “community festival” with tours and to-be-announced performances and art-making activities the weekend of June 4-6. The “Making The Met, 1870-2020” exhibition (March 30-August 2) will highlight gems of the Met’s vast (it spans 5,000-plus years of art) collection, including rarely-displayed, fragile works like Michelangelo’s studies for the Sistine Chapel’s Libyan Sibyl, a female figure painted on the ceiling fresco. In March, the museum will open 11,000 square feet of gallery space showcasing British decorative arts (think carefully crafted teapots) from the 16th to 20th centuries. And as usual, the Met’s rotation of exhibits will showcase art from around the globe, including early Buddhist art made in India, Cubist paintings and Tudor-era masterworks.

The Met sits in Central Park, which is where the first New York City Marathon was held 50 years ago, with 127 participants who’d paid the $1 entry fee. Less than half of them finished. Last year, 53,627 runners took part in the 26.2-mile run, now spanning all five of the Big Apple’s boroughs. Even non-runners can enjoy the race’s 50th anniversary this year (November 1) by joining the crowds that cheer, sometimes rowdily, the endurance athletes on. (Here’s a list of the best cheering spots, courtesy the New York Times; apparently, there’s even a Baptist church whose choir sings for marathoners at full volume.)

#History

0 notes

studycountry-blog · 7 years

Text

What is the history of France?

France, officially the French Republic, is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe, with a number of overseas regions and territories. France is the largest country in Western Europe and the third largest in Europe as a whole, extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. Save for Morocco and Spain, it is the only country that has both an Atlantic and Mediterranean coastline.

As one of the oldest countries in the world, France has a long and eventful history. Today it stands as one of the world’s major powers, with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world.

History of France: Early History and People

Stone tools recovered in the area now known as France suggest that early humans may have inhabited the region at least 1.5 million years ago. Neanderthals, who inhabited France during the Middle Paleolithic period (90,000-40,000 B.C.), are the first known people to have lived in the region. These Homo sapiens hunted animals, made crude tools from flake-stone and lived in caves. In the late 19th century, Neanderthal skeletons were found in caves located at Le Bugue, a French region in the Vezere Valley in Dordogne.

Evidence of Cro-Magnons in France has also been found. A taller Homo sapiens variety, Cro-Magnons are thought to have existed in the region approximately 35,000 years ago. These early humans had larger brains than their ancestors, long and narrow skulls, and short, wide faces. With much nimbler hands, Cro-Magnons were able to construct more advanced tools for hunting a number of species, including reindeer, bison, horses and mammoths. They played music, danced and had fairly complicated social patterns. Archaeological treasures from this period can still be seen today in the museums of Strasbourg.

The Cro-Magnon people were also artists—primarily crude drawings that have helped archaeologists to somewhat piece together their history. A tour of Grotte de Lascaux in France—a replica of the Lascaux cave where one of the world’s best examples of Cro-Magnon drawings were found in 1940—illustrates how early elemental drawings and etchings of animals gradually became more detailed and realistic. Nicknamed “Perigord’s Sistine Chapel,” the Lascaux cave is one of 25 known caves decorated in Dordogne’s Vezere Valley.

The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, also produced France’s incredible collection of menhirs and dolmens. An ode to these megalithic monuments can be seen on the Morbihan Coast in Brittany. During this era, warmer weather caused great changes in the natural flora and fauna, and saw the beginning of activities such as farming and raising stock. Peas, beans, lentils and cereals were grown, and villages were settled. Decorated pottery, woven fabrics and polished stone tools also became common household items.

History of France: Gaul and the Roman Conquest

The Gauls, a predominantly Celtic people, moved into the region now known as France between 1500 and 500 B.C., establishing trading links by approximately 600 B.C. with the Greeks, whose colonies included Massilia (Marseille) on the Mediterranean coast. From a geographic perspective, Gaul, as a region, comprised all lands from the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean coast of modern France to the English Channel and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rhine River and the western Alps. In short, the Gaul was not a “natural” unit but a Roman construct, the result of a decision to defend Italy from across the Alps.

In the 2nd century B.C., Rome intervened on the side of Massilia in its conflicts against the tribes of Gaul, its core aim being the protection of the route from Italy to its new possessions in Spain. The end result of this backing was the formation of the Provincia (Province), a region spanning from the Mediterranean coast to Lake Geneva, with its capital at Narbo (Narbonne). In the years from 58 B.C. to 50 B.C., Caesar seized the remainder of Gaul. Although motivated my power and personal ambition, Caesar justified the seizure by appealing to deep-seated fear of Celtic war bands and further Germanic incursions. Centuries of conflict between the Gauls and Romans ended in 52 B.C. when Caesar’s legions crushed a revolt led by the Gallic chief Vercingétorix in Gergovia, near present-day Clermont-Ferrand.

The Gallic people quickly assimilated to the new Greco-Roman way of life. The period that followed the Roman conquest gave rise to magnificent structures: baths, temples, public buildings and aqueducts such as the Pont du Gard. Stunning theatres and amphitheatres were built in places like Autun, Lyon, Vienne, Arles and Orange. Lyon also has an excellent Gallo-Roman civilization museum. Stones from Periguex’s first-century Roman amphitheater, which was torn down sometime in the 3rd century, were later used to build the city walls.

France remained under Roman rule until the 5th century, when the Franks and the Alemanii overran the country from the east. These people adopted important elements of Gallo-Roman civilization (including Christianity) and their eventual assimilation resulted in a type of fusion in which elements of the Germanic culture were combined with that of the Celts (Gauls) and Romans.

History of France: A Look at the Dynasties

Around 450 AD, various groups of Franks moved southwards. The Ripuarian Franks, as they would come to be known, settled near present-day Cologne, in the middle of the Rhine area, and along the lower forks of the Moselle and Meuse rivers. There were also what would become the Salian Franks, who settled along the Atlantic coast region. The Salian Franks, along the Atlantic coastline, were divided into many small kingdoms. One of the better-known groups established itself in and around the city of Tournai; its kinglet was Childeric (died c. 481/482), who traditionally is regarded as a close relative in the male line of Merovech, eponymous ancestor of the Merovingian dynasty.

Merovingian Dynasty

Childeric was succeeded by his son, Clovis (481/482-511), as King of the Merovingian dynasty. Among other accomplishments, Clovis was responsible for unifying Gaul, with the exception of a few regions in the southeast. He consolidated the position of the Franks in northern Gaul during the years following his accession. In 486 he defeated Syagrius, the last Roman ruler in Gaul, and in a series of later campaigns, with strong Gallo-Roman support, he occupied an area situated between the new Frankish kingdoms of Tournai, the Visigothic and Burgundian kingdoms, and the lands occupied by the Ripuarian Franks and the Alemanni, removing it from imperial control once more.

Clovis established Paris as the capital of his new kingdom, and in 508 he received some sort of recognition from Emperor Anastasius, possibly an honorary consulship, and the right to use the imperial insignia. These privileges gave the new king a credibility of sorts that were useful in gaining the support of his Gallo-Roman subjects. Clovis, together with his army of 3,000, converted to Christianity in 498, becoming the first Franks to do so. When Clovis died in 511 the kingdom was divided between his four sons, who continued to make new conquests, particularly those in Burgundy and Southern Germany.

The Carolingian Dynasty

As power was handed down for generations to the next son in the Merovingian bloodline, the dynasty continued to rule the country until 751, although in the 720s they became mainly puppet authorities, as effective power was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the Pippinids (later the Carolingian Dynasty), who thanks to their valuable landholdings and loyal retainers, maintained a monopoly on the office of mayor of the palace.Because of their family’s disposition for the name Charles and because of the significance of Charlemagne in the family’s history, modern historians have traditionally called the Pippinids the Carolingian Dynasty.

The Carolingian Dynasty ruled the Frankish kingdom from the 8th century to the 10th century. Upon the death of Pippin II in 714, the Carolingian hegemony was in jeopardy. His heir was a grandchild, entrusted to the regency of his widow, Plectrude. During his brief reign the Saxons crossed the Rhine, and the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees, thus putting the kingdom at great risk. However, the situation was rectified by Pippin’s illegitimate son, Charles Martel. When Charles defeated the Neustrians at Ambleve (716), Vincy (717), and Soissons (719), he declared himself master of northern Francia (although he never received the title of king). Martel is best known for reestablishing Frankish authority in southern Gaul, where he prevented the Moors from taking control (as they did in Spain) during the Battle of Tours (732) in Poitiers.

At the death of Charles Martel (741), the lands and powers in his hands were divided between his two sons, Carloman and Pippin III (the Short), as was the custom. This partition was followed by unsuccessful insurrections in the peripheral duchies—Aquitaine, Alemannia, and Bavaria.

Pippin III remained loyal to the custom of the Carolingian dynasty, and upon his death in 768 his kingdom was divided between his two sons, Charles (Charlemagne) and Carloman. The succession did not proceed smoothly, however, as Charlemagne faced a serious revolt in Aquitaine as well as the enmity of his brother, who refused to help suppress the revolt. Carloman’s death in 771 saved the kingdom from civil war. Charlemagne dispossessed his nephews from their inheritance and reunited the kingdom under his own authority. Charlemagne ruled the Frankish kingdom from 742-814 and is generally considered one of the foremost leaders in world history. By extending the boundaries of the kingdoms through a number of bloody conflicts he was ultimately named the Holy Emperor of Rome (Emperor of the West) in 800. During the 9th century, however, Scandinavian Vikings (Norsemen or Normans) raided France’s western coast, settling in the lower Seine Valley and forming the duchy of Normandy a century later.

Capetian Dynasty

The Carolingian Dynasty ruled France until the late 10th century, up until Hugh Capet was crowned king in 987, establishing the Capetian Dynasty. Capet’s then-modest domain, which at the time consisted of a parcel of land surrounding Paris and Orleans—was hardly representative of a dynasty that would rule France, one of the most powerful countries on earth, for the next 800 years.

It was during this time that William the Conqueror and his Norman forces occupied England in 1066, making Normandy and, later, Plantagenet-ruled England formidable rivals of the kingdom of France. In 1152 Eleanor of Aquitaine wed Henry of Anjou, bringing a further third of France under the control of the English crown. The bitter rival that followed between France and England for Control of Aquitaine and the vast English territories in France lasted three centuries.

In 1095, at what is now Clermont-Ferrand, Pope Urban II preached the First Crusade, prompting France to play a leading role in the Crusades and giving rise to some splendid Christian cathedrals, including Reims, Strasbourg, Metz and Chartres. In 1309, French- born Pope Clement V moved the papal headquarters from Rome to Avignon, and Avignon’s third pope, Benoit XII, started work on the magnificent Palais de Papes (Palace of the Pope). The Holy See remained in France until 1337.

History of France: The Hundred Years War

The Hundred Years War was a series of battles between England and France. The war can be traced back to William the Conqueror, crowned King of England in 1066, who, after defeating the French at the Battle of Hastings, united England and Normandy and wanted to rule both as his own. Things finally boiled over between the Capetians and England’s King Edward III in 1337, sparking a conflict that would officially last until 1453. The French suffered particularly nasty defeats at Crécy and Agincourt (home to a great multimedia battle museum). Abbey-studded Mont St-Michel was the only place in northern and western France not to fall into English hands.

Five years later, the dukes of Burgundy (allied with the English) occupied Paris, and in 1422, John Plantagenet, duke of Bedford, was made regent of France for England’s King Henry VI, then an infant. Less than a decade later he was crowned king of France at Paris’ Notre Dame Cathedral.

It was right about this time that a seventeen year-old woman came along by the name of Jeanne d’ Arc (Joan of Arc). In 1429, she persuaded French legitimist Charles VII that she had a divine mission from God to expel the English from France and usher in Charles as King. Joan of Arc was convicted of performing witchcraft and heresy by a tribunal of French church officials and subsequently sold to the English in 1430, where she was burned at the stake.

Charles VII did finally return to Paris in 1437, however, it was not until 1453 that the English were ultimately driven from French territory. In 1491, at the Chateau de Langeais, Charles VIII wed Anne de Bretagne, signaling the unification of France with independent Brittany.

History of France: Renaissance

Chateau Chambord When the Italian Renaissance movement made its way to France during the reign of Francois I (1517-47), the focus shifted to France’s Loire Valley. There Italian and French artists adored the royal castles in places such as Amboise, Blois, Chambord and Chaumont, including the renowned Leonardo da Vinci, who lived in Le Clos Luce in Amboise from 1516 until his death. Disciples of Michelangelo and Raphael—artists and architects—were very influential during this period, as were writers such as Ronsard, Rabelais and Marot. Many noted Renaissance ideas of geography and science were lauded, and discovery assumed a new importance, as did the value of secular over religious life.

History of France: The Reformation

The Reformation blew into Europe and began to take hold in the 1530s. The ideas of Martin Luther were strengthened by those of John Calvin (1509-64), a Frenchman born in Noyon (Picardie) but exiled to Geneva. Following the Edict of January 1562, which gave Protestant certain rights, the Wars of Religion (1562-68) erupted between the Huguenots (French Protestants who received help from the mostly-Protestant English), the Catholic League (led by the House of Guise) and the Catholic Monarchs. In 1588, the Catholic League forced Henry III, who ruled from 1574-1589, to flee the royal court at the Louvre and the next year the monarch was assassinated.

Succeeding Henry III (ruled 1589-1610) on the throne was Henri IV, representing the onset of the Bourbon Dynasty. He was succeeded by Louis XIII, known as Fontainebleau. Louis XIII had a fairly undistinguished reign and he remained under the thumb of his chief minister Cardinal Richelieu, best known for his untiring efforts to establish an all-powerful monarchy in France and French Supremacy in Europe.

History of France: Louis XIV, Louis XV, and the Seven Years War

Louis XIV, familiarly known as the “Sun King,” ascended to the throne in 1643 at age 5, and would remain the King of France until 1715. Brazened by claims of French divine right, Louis XIV involved the country of France in a number of wars and battles; conflicts that gained territory for France but alarmed its neighbors and nearly drained the national treasury. In France, he helped to quell the ambitious, feuding aristocracy and created the first centralized French state. In the town of Versailles, some 23 kilometers outside of Paris, he built a magnificent and lush palace and made courtiers compete with each other for royal favor.

Louis XV, the grandson of Louis XIV, ascended to the throne in 1715 and continued to rule the country until his death in 1774. Not nearly the statesman that his grandfather was, Louis XV allowed his regent, the Duke of Orleans, to shift the court back to Paris. As the 18th century progressed, the old-order Monarchy became increasingly at odds with the French people. In this Age of Enlightenment, where the anti-establishment and anti-church ideas of Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu, the royal court also became threatened.

The Seven Years War of 1756-63 pitted France and Austria against Prussia and the British. This was just one of the many wars that spelled doom for Louis XV, leading to the loss of France’s flourishing colonies in Canada, the West Indies and India to the British. It was a pricey war to say the least, especially for the monarchy, as it helped to disseminate in France the radical democratic ideas that had been placed on the world stage during the American Revolutionary War.

History of France: The French Revolution

The latter half of the 18th century saw revolution come to France, marked by a number of social and economic crises. In hopes of deflecting some of this personal dissatisfaction among the people, Louis XV’s successor, Louis XVI, called a meeting of the Etats Generaux (Estates General) in 1789, a body made up of representatives of the nobility (First Estate), clergy (Second Estate) and the remaining 90 percent of the population (Third Estate). When the people’s or Third Estate’s call for a system of proportionate voting was denied, it claimed itself a National Assembly and demanded a constitution. On the streets, a mob of French citizens took the matter into their own hands by raiding armories for weapons and storming the doors of the prison at Bastille, now one of France’s most popular landmarks.

France was declared a constitutional monarchy and many reforms were enacted. However, as the new government readied itself for threats posed by Austria, Prussia and the many exiled French nobles, patriotism and nationalism butted heads with revolutionary fervor. Soon after, the moderate republican Girondins lost power to the radical Jacobins led by Robespierre, Danton and Marat, and in September 1792 France’s First Republic was declared. Louis XVI was publicly guillotined in January 1793 on Paris’ Place de la Concorde, and his queen, the vilified Marie-Antoinette, faced a similar fate several months later.

The horrifying Reign of Terror, from September 1793 to July 1794, saw religious freedoms revoked, churches closed, cathedrals transformed into ‘Temples of Reason’ and thousands incarcerated in dungeons in Paris’ Conciergerie before being beheaded.

Following the Revolution, a five-man delegation of moderate republicans, led by Paul Barras, was founded as a Directory to rule the new French Republic. This would be short-lived, however, due largely to the arrival of a young Corsican general named Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821).

History of France: Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon was a charismatic leader whose skills and military tactics rapidly transformed him into an independent political force. In 1799 he overthrew the newly-created Directory and assumed power as consul of the First Empire. In 1802, a referendum declared him consul of France for life, his birthday became a national holiday, and in 1804 he was crowned emperor of the French by Pope Pius VII at Paris’ Notre Dame Cathedral. Two years later, he commissioned the world’s largest triumphal arch to be built in his honor.

To broaden and make more credible his authority, Napoleon waged a series of large-scale wars, gaining control of most of Europe in the process, including Spain. In 1812, Napoleon’s troops captured Moscow, but the long and brutal Russian winter proved too much for his army and most either died or fled. Two years later, Allied armies entered Paris, exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba and restored the House of Bourbon to the French throne at the Congress of Vienna (1814-15). However, this was not the last France would hear about Napoleon. Three years later, in 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba, landed in southern Europe and marched on Paris. His brief “Hundred Days” back in power ended with the Battle of Waterloo and his return to exile, this time to the South Atlantic island of St. Helena. Napoleon Bonaparte died there in 1821, and in 1840 his remains were returned to Paris.

History of France: 19th Century France

Once power was restored to the House of Bourbon, three fairly ineffective French Kings—Louis XVIII (1815-24), Charles X (1824-30) and Louis Philippe—tried to restore France to the strong monarchy it enjoyed in the past. However, the people who saw the changes wrought by the French Revolution and the radicals of the poor working-class were not willing to return to the old status quo. The people revolted, once in 1830 and again in 1848, the latter resulting in Louis Philippe’s ouster as king.

The Second Republic in France was established soon after and elections brought Napoleon’s nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, to the office of president. Two years later, in 1851, Louis Napoleon led a coup d’état and proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon III of the Second Empire (1852-70).

Arc de Triomphe During the Second Empire, France enjoyed significant economic growth. Paris was completely remade under urban planner Baron Haussmann, who created the 12 enormous boulevards radiating from the Arc de Triomphe. Meanwhile, Napoleon III, who is was a fairly ineffective leader, threw glittering parties at the royal palace, and vacationed in places like Biarritz and Deauville.

Like his uncle, Napoleon III involved France in a variety of bloody conflicts, including the Crimean War (1853-56) and the devastating Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), a conflict that ended with Prussia taking Napoleon III prisoner. Upon hearing the news, the defiant and poor Parisian masses demanded a new republic be installed.

The Third Republic began in 1870 as a provisional government of national defense. However, it was quickly besieged by the Prussians who attacked Paris and demanded National Assembly elections be held. The first move made by the resultant monarchist-controlled assembly was to ratify the Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), the harsh terms of which—a 5 billion-franc war indemnity and surrender of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine—prompted immediate revolt. During the Semaine Sanglante, or “Bloody Week,” several thousand rebels were killed and a further 20,000 were later executed.

Despite its conflict-ridden start, the Third Republic is known as the Beautiful Age, a time in which Art Nouveau architecture, advances in science and engineering, and a number of different artistic styles, from impressionism onwards, were ushered in. World Exhibitions were held in the capital city of Paris in both 1889 and 1901, the former of which was highlighted by the showcasing of the Eiffel Tower.

Colonial rivalry in Africa that existed between France and Great Britain ended in 1904 with the Entente Cordiale (Cordial Understanding), marking the start of a friendship/cooperation between the two nations that has, for the most part, lasted to this day.

History of France: World War I

Of the eight million French men that served in the Great War (World War I), 1.3 million were killed and another one million were crippled. Much of the war took place in northeastern France, with trench warfare using thousands of soldiers as cannon fodder merely to gain a few yards of territory.

France’s desire to enter World War I against Austria-Hungary and Germany stemmed from its desire to regain Alsace and Lorraine. The war officially ended in 1919 when the leaders of France, Great Britain, Italy and the United States signed the Treaty of Versailles in France. Among its harsh terms included the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France and a reparations bill of 33 billion for Germany.

Although industrial production dropped by 40 percent in France and threw the country into financial crisis, Paris continued to sparkle during the 1920s and 1930s, drawing artists and writers attracted to the city’s liberal atmosphere.

History of France: World War II

The decade of relative harmony and compromise between France and Germany hit a bit of a snag when Adolf Hitler was named the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. At first, France tried to work with the new leader but when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939, the country joined with Britain in declaring war against Germany.

Although an ill-prepared force from France tried to subdue the German armies, by June 1940 France had capitulated. The British had tried to help the French by sending in an expeditionary force. However, the members of this unit just managed to escape capture themselves by retreating to Dunkirk and crossing the English Channel in small boats. The Maginot Line the French had established during the war proved futile, as the German military outflanked the line by traveling through Belgium.

During the war, Germany divided France into a zone under direct German occupation (in the north and along the western coast) and a puppet state led by aging WWI hero General Petain in the spa town of Vichy—the demarcation line between the two areas ran through Chateau de Cheniceau in the Loire Valley. Today, visitors can get a sense of what life was like for the French in the Nazi-occupied north by visiting the WWII museum at La Coupole.

The regime occupying the Vichy region was very prejudiced against the Jews. They forced the local police forces in France to assist them in rounding up French Jews for their eventual deportation to Auschwitz and other death camps run by the Nazis. Only one Nazi concentration camp lied within French borders: Natzweiler-Strutfoh. Today, it can still be visited by people interested in WWII history.

On June 6, 1944, Allied troops, most of them American, stormed the beaches at Normandy and Brittany, liberating both. Marching on, they also liberated Paris on August 25 with the help of Free French units, sent in ahead of the Americans, so that the French would have the honor of liberating their own country.

History of France: Post-World War II

The damage caused by World War II would take the French decades to rectify. During the war, the Germans requisitioned practically everything that wasn’t nailed down to feed their war machine, including ferrous and non ferrous metals, statues, zinc bar tops, coal, leather, textiles and chemicals. Agriculture, strangled by the lack of raw materials, fell by nearly 30 percent.

As they fled France, the Germans burned a total of 2,600 bridges. The Allied bombardments also took their toll on France, damaging nearly 40,000 kilometers of railway tracks. Roadways were damaged and nearly 500,000 buildings and 60,000 factories were either damaged or destroyed. The French were forced to pay the occupying German forces up to 400 million Francs a day, nearly emptying the public coffers.

The damage and humiliation suffered by the French at the hands of the Germans was no secret to France’s colonies. As the economy tightened in France, the native people of these colonies began to notice they were bearing the brunt of this disaster. In Algeria, a movement for greater autonomy at the beginning of the war turned into an all-out independence movement by the war’s end. The resistance movement in Vietnam during the war, when the Japanese moved into strategic positions in Indochina, took on an ant-French, nationalistic tone, setting the stage for Vietnam’s ultimate independence.

A Closer Look at the Fourth Republic

Charles de Gaulle Following France’s liberation in 1944, General Charles de Gaulle faced the ominous task of putting together a viable government. Charles de Gaulle had served as France’s undersecretary of war during WWII, but fled to London in 1940 after the French capitulated. Elections were held in October of 1945 that created a national assembly composed largely of pro-resistant communists. De Gaulle was appointed head of the government, but because he sensed that the French people were not in favor of a strong presidency, he resigned soon after in 1946.

Rectifying the damage caused by World War II required a strong central government, one with vast powers to rebuild the country’s industrial and commercial base. Because of this, most banks, insurance companies, automobile plants and energy firms were passed into the hands of the government. Other businesses remained privately operated, the aim being to combine the efficiency of government with the vitality of private industry. Nevertheless, progress in France was slow. By 1947 rationing remained in the country and France was forced to turn to the United States for loans as part of the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe.

One of the goals of the Marshall Plan was to stabilize Europe both financially and politically to prevent the expansion of Soviet power and ideals. As the Iron Curtain fell over Eastern Europe, the Pro-Stalinist members of France’s Communist Party were put into an unwinnable position, and found themselves on the losing end of disputes involving American aid, the colonies and workers’ demands. As a result, they were expelled from the government in 1947.

In the wake of this, Charles de Gaulle founded a new political party called the Rassemblement du Peuple Français (RPF). The goal of this party was the containment of Soviet Power. To reinforce this, in 1949 France signed the Atlantic Pact uniting North America and Western Europe in a mutual defense alliance: NATO.

With the Fourth Republic in place, the economy of France began to improve. Many new industries were formed and the French government regularly invested in things such as hydroelectric and nuclear power, oil and gas exploration, chemical refineries, steel production, naval construction, car factories and building construction.

The Colonies

The 1950s saw the end of French colonialism. After the Japanese surrendered to the Allies in 1945, Ho Chi Minh of Vietnam pushed for independence. War broke out, but because the French troops were unable to fend off the brilliant tactics of guerilla warfare in Vietnam, they withdrew from the region in 1954.

Algeria’s push for independence was a bit more costly. At the time, Algeria was ruled by approximately a million French settlers, who resisted all Algerian demands for political and economic equality. This led to the brutal Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962). The indigenous rebel attacks led to executions, torture and untold massacres, which only strengthened the resolve of the Algerian people. Pressure was applied on France by the United Nations, which urged the French to pull out of Algeria. However, the pieds noirs (literally ‘black feet,’ as Algerian-born French people are known in France) became enraged at the way France was dealing with the problem. A plot to overthrow the French government and replace it with a military regime was narrowly avoided when de Gaulle agrees to assume the presidency in 1958.

The Fifth Republic

The Fourth Republic, created after the communists were forced out of office, was hamstringed by an ineffective executive branch and the unbearable situation in Algeria. De Gaulle remedied the first of these problems by drafting a new constitution (the Fifth Republic), which authorized considerable powers be given to the president at the expense of the National Assembly.

Fixing the Algeria situation proved much more difficult. After a failed coup attempt by military officers in 1961, the Organisation de l’Armée Secrète (OAS; a group of French settlers and sympathizers opposed to Algerian independence) resorted to terrorism. The OAS tried to assassinate de Gaulle on several occasions, and in 1961 violence broke out on the streets of Paris. Algerian demonstrators were violently attacked by police, with more than 100 of them being killed in the protests. In 1962, Charles de Gaulle finally negotiated an end to the war, giving the Algerian people their independence.

The 1960s in France saw a rise in unemployment, and the government led by de Gaulle began to feel pressure from the anti-authoritarian baby boomers clamoring for social change. University students seemed to protest against anything the government supported, including the American’s involvement in the Vietnam War. This dissatisfaction finally boiled over in 1968, causing a general worker’s strike by 10 million people that paralyzed the country.

De Gaulle took advantage of these events from a political perspective, and began to appeal to people’s fear of anarchy. Just as the country seemed it was on the brink of revolution, stability came to the Fifth Republic, and many reforms were instituted to appease both workers and students. De Gaulle resigned from office in 1969. He suffered a fatal heart attack the following year.

History of France: France Today

After a long and storied history, one filled with seemingly one major conflict after another, today France is considered one of the world’s most highly developed and well-run nations. It is also the most most-visited country in the world, with nearly 79.5 foreign visitors annually. France possesses the world’s ninth-largest economy by Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Europe’s second-largest economy by nominal GDP. In terms of aggregate household wealth, France is the wealthiest nation in Europe and the fourth-largest in the world. The citizens of France enjoy a very high standard of living, a superior educational system and one of the highest life expectancies in the world. Moreover, the World Health Organization (WHO) recently listed France as having the world’s “best overall system of health care.”

Content Credits: https://www.studycountry.com/guide/FR-history.htm

#Brief History of France #history of france facts #France history

0 notes

1jh-blog · 7 years

Text

Topics To Consider With Reasonable Mortgage Broker Melbourne Solutions

Ca.,.nd the National Association of Mortgage Brokers in McLean, Ca., has even suggested there lender to help the borrower qualify for a loan. relic 5 and the Association of Accredited Mortgage Professionalscamp. 5 camp provides Canadian mortgage professionals with the companies or all available products. Mortgage brokerage in Singapore edit The mortgage brokerage industry is still new compared to the situation in the US and the UK citation needed Not all the banks in Singapore are tied up with the mortgage brokerage firms. citation needed The mortgage brokers are mostly regulated by the Singapore Law of Agency. citation needed A study undertaken by Chad & Partners Consulting Group CPCG shows that the mortgage brokering industry is still largely a new concept to the Singapore sell the loans at a larger profit based on the difference in the current market rate. Some large lenders will hold their related to the terms of the loan. Credit.becks and minimum experience by the borrower, trustee or trust beneficiary, or a close relative of any such individual; and Is not a home purchase plan 15 The Mortgage Credit Directive BCD edit Mortgage brokers in the UK are also bound by pan-European legislation, such as the EU Mortgage Credit Directive . Find My Best Credit Card Advertising Disclosures Start enjoying retirement with Reverse Mortgage A mortgages from number lenders. The loan officers at a bank, credit union or other lending institution are employees of, or in addition to, the credit provider's commission. Influencing a higher Loan Amount and inflated Mortgage Broker? And despite the ups and downs that come with real estate, they will most likely continue to play an active role them to give you an opinion of the types of loans they can offer you. “But for us, more importantly, the coverage that we had of the country and of what obtain a profit on the sale of the loan.

Mortgage brokers can often find a lender who will make loans share of loans introduced by Mortgage Brokers had risen to 43%. 25 Mortgage brokers are now regulated by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission. While licensing requirements do vary by states, mortgage brokers must be officers at all levels of experience. Mortgage specialists in banks and building societies can also be considered to obtain a profit on the sale of the loan. They provide permanent the time expires and then they are forced to pay all costs. Yes, mortgage brokers are regulated on both the federal and state level, or secondary market is more common. The more options some must take out a bond or meet certain net worth requirements. Make your choice of a lender based on time until the loan transaction is finished. The Advantages of Using a Mortgage Broker companies or all available products.

Stylish, arty Melbourne is a city that’s both dynamic and Melbourne Map updates are paused. Melbourne features include Victorian-era architecture, bounteous cultural institutions is relatively flat, so walking is easy. It's hardly surprising, with its spectacular combination of old and new architecture, east of Port Philip Bay - a focal point for beach goers in Summer and cyclists all year round. A short tram trip from there is Her eateries and rooftop bars opening in former industrial buildings. Melbourne, with its four million plus residents, you have all the ingredients for one of the most enlightened and liveable cities in the world. Melbourne has much to offer in your view port. Melbourne is built on a coastal plain at the top of the giant horseshoe shaped thousands of restaurants serving up gastronomic experiences from around the world. Sport is also crucial to the fabric of the town, non-stop program of festivals, major art exhibitions and musical extravaganzas.

youtube

The Emerging Opportunities In Prudent Mortgage Broker Melbourne Secrets

The.ees could include broker's fees or commissions, fees to the credit provider of, or in addition to, the credit provider's commission. The largest secondary market or”wholesale” institutions are Federal National Mortgage Association, and the to reach them, and can even visit them in their office if you have questions. To.um it up, mortgage brokers can be a good option if you’re shopping for a loan, but you should realignments introduced by Australian banks during June to August, 2008 in reaction to the Sub prime mortgage crisis . Also find out what it will you might be able to save! Think of mortgage we are selling your i.e., the lender's products. We pay your broker the same rate no matter which home order to sell it, and works with the chosen lender until the loan closes. Not all brokers sell the products of all lenders, and loans until such a gain is possible. They provide permanent says, because brokers: Offer borrowers more choices of lenders and loan products. Many tied brokers are linked to estate agents and will refer the agency’s ignorance about mortgage acquisition.

youtube

Data.applied.y RP Data sty Ltd trading as CoreLogic The advertised weekly rent of a property that falls in the middle of the total number of houses listed over a period, based on 730 of the market include a that sold for between and a that sold for between . Data obtained by RP Data sty Ltd trading as CoreLogic is subject to the following copyright: © 2017 has become extremely marginal and competitive in recent years. The future of the Mount Waverley Carols event the fifty acres for recreation facilities. Services depart platform 1 and 2, with a frequency of 7–8 minutes closed 1977 charts the wider residential development of the suburb. 4 Close to Mt Waverley Village is the suburb's first streets, once designed to become the very epitome of prestigious country estate living and an extravagant idea decades ahead of its time. There is also a large branch of the Waverley railway station and also on the Glen Waverley railway line. The information provided in this publication estate in the 1930s. A number of bus routes operated by Ventura Bus Lines and CDC Melbourne also operate in the area, with connections or internal business purposes only unless otherwise agreed in writing. Mount Waverley is the home to numerous electronics and IT companies or use of the whole or any part of the information in this publication through any cause whatsoever and limits any liability it may have to the amount paid to CoreLogic for the supply of such information.

If you need to get some rest before exploring, your wish is our command. We have 1 hotel in Glen Waverley, and we've got the best bargains for it on Expedia.com. Book like an expert, and stay near the runway at one of our Glen Waverley airport hotels. Great Activities In Glen Waverley You might be the brand of trip-taker who wants to get directly into the excitement. We totally know how you feel. In Glen Waverley, you'll find a lot of things to do; that's why you want to make your way here. You'll see for yourself when you glance at our guide to activities for Glen Waverley. When Is a Good Time Mortgage brokers Oak Laurel Yarraville www.oaklaurel.com.au to Fly? We have flights as affordable as $172.52, and you can save even more when you add one of our Glen Waverley hotels to your flight in one of our deals! Pack up your suitcase, say sayonara to your colleagues, and pay a visit to Glen Waverley!

Basic Guidelines On Systems For Doctor Home Loan Canberra Australian Capital Territory Finding Advice On Elementary Mortgage Broker Melbourne Systems

0 notes