#sclerotic coat

[techgizmohub]

#China #Gizmo #Hub #Impacting #Military #Printing #tech

[economicsresearch]

pages 171c and 172 - That. Party. Was. Crazy.

At one point I thought someone had taken their shirt off and my eyes had left my head and started to float around the room.

I stabbed my eyes in the direction of the topless person only to discover it was some sort of slime mould growing on the wall in the shape of a breast. Don’t touch things with your open eyes, kids, because It really stung and now I can’t see anything.

Still, great party.

#biology #biologist #zoology #zoologist #epidermis #cornea #retina #nerve #eye #simple #coat #sclerotic #vitreous #humor #humour #pigment #optic #optic nerve #ciliary body #body #iris #pupil #eyelid #googly eyes #ogle #stare #rude #crude #dude #party

[m58]

three from Joshua Martin

Deserted Avalanche Hole in One

 firing squad DIMPLE & carry the two, added up, makes a vomiting like a crying ANTeater slipping on banana peel, joking, the jokester crawls through the landMINES minding his own business to a fault, to an average faced poolhall, there are Lessons LEARNED & seaWEEDs choking perfume gasping water buffalo time machine panache, trash, lashing out, strapped in for antigravity simulation /// look here, the banjo playing ballerina w/ the SNIFFLES,

                                    cough              cough              cough

                        COUGHING                                                   FIT

  ��                                             Errol Flynn     diamond bracelet

            Archibald spoiled the party by playing himself,

meanwhile,

                        ALICE B. TOKLAS

                                    sped through RED

                                                            LIGHT

                                                                        drinking Fruit punch &

                                                eating cold cuts—

her & her historic parades of pondered pinochle games & peanut shell glass house dr., please, dr., don’t tell a soul how far gone we all are, in step & OUT OF WHACK, reading until dawn’s early farting, she in gin floating, she in a corner of a cart, all at former headquarters of cut rate keyboard destroyers—

                                    You see,

                        the flesh                      melts stubbornly,

            not unlike,

                        a                      ketchup&mustard                   dressing gown, hot

sauce PIE

            Chart, leaping

                                    dinner time in the shadow of hannah HOCH,

the                                           groom                         stripped                       NAKED

            &

pouting, doglike, thinned out, wearing glasses, struttin’, shut-in, a million sleeping paradises proposing enigmatic randomness, then loosed for THOU ART LOOSED &

            THOU ART a             STONE

                                                tho STAINED

w/ letters,

            Latinized, church to grave / easel to dumpster / blew to heaving blown up enough trash heaps to make the encyclopedia of information overload once a desire passes for a NEED &

                                                            then                 MARGOT KIDDER   bookends

brothers of

            LIARS,

                        peels of laughing bellhops at risk for calamities,

so very

            un

                        fettered,

                                    feathered, Absurdly drowned b/t stretches over park defined by barbarian coat of many colors, yes unknowns, yes CHAOS, yes you did hear the bookworm shoes correctly,

                        Carlos had another bat fancy

                        idea, see how it sets,

            see how                                   another crushing

PAVEMENT

                                    bellows                                               like GRENDEL

                                                                        flotsam&jetsam

je, tu, il, elle,

            didn’t You have a meeting with Professor Doctor Whatshisface????

                        or,

inside ambitions signals trained to have been promised, snickering, bickering on a beam of sclerotic light, laser, phased out diarrhea of the mouth, syndrome all too familiar, all CNN all the fucked up & leave it alone for the love of eyeball juice, sailing through rimless OCEAN liner house of a 1000 cracked skulls /

                                                                        really,then, You & Yours & the fountain

                                                                        taller than a maniac running

                                                                        than a mannequin squirming,

                                                                                    the sex of the baby

                                                                                                POINTLESS &

                        PROFOUND &                                                                                  Pounded

into head curved swerved hair follicle abundance, hairpiece missions, squirrels on EDGE, another PINOCCHIO for the ages, new decade to test the limits, white water rafting,

                                                TEST TUBE TOP,

                                                            Saturday had revealed

                                                            itself as sudden &

                                                            brief,

truncated sweet meats,

                        a STAR is

                                    RISEN, (deformed)

                                                a BUM is

            grown,

societal salad bowls brains splattered raised to be the spitting image of Wallace Beery, then uncovering plots to render butter tasteless, then VENUS slaps MARS who tells URANUS to go to hello how are you,

                                                not likely to have

                                                unveiled the TRUTHFUL

                                                acrobat cursing shoehorns (the kind)

                                                w/ teeth,

                                    even tho                                  THEY             DON’T exist,

            still, You

wonder,                                   then, in fact,

                        WHAT DOES????????????????????????????????????????????????????

  Preconceived LED Drunken Brawl

 damaged LIKED lifted horizon stumbles

lame duck truck NECK BRACE

                                                embrace

                        of                                 nothing            LIKE

            elephant rippling flesh hair nipple

                        VESTS…spun to gold thread spleen /

                                    rumpled vest/shirt/

ingested bleach substitute

                                                helicopter

PROPELLER…a jet engine                                       JAZZ

                        computer Streaming

                                                momentary lapse of

            un-

                        reasonable lingering push-pull

OF                                           BRANCH / trance

                                    D

                                    A

                                    N

                                    C

                                    e…saying in the round

table, chair, leg, ham, fist,

            grieving MUG / CHUG /

                        high heels down the

Rabbit Hole…fixing diamond,

                                                to Fist

                                                            s…

                        a slimy drop of

Perspiring                                                       ROCK

                                    gulf                 enigma

            ritual

                        sacrificial Hawk wing

of plentiful                              destroying

                                    stammering /

            POUNDING / DRIFTING…when to

find a how TO guide crumpled

up into ball of WAX

                                    reception.

  All Hail the National Disasters

 Swiss doughnut piles swirling green in jest

                                                in AN OUTSTRETCHED

                                    comma                        grinning

                                                                        wild

or (&this is where Simon turned to Simone who had shoes on her hands but no real sense               

       of three hole punching) rhythms pontificating Faustian approvals (at night the knight

       seemed to glow tho not properly enough to prosper like the GHOST of Ebenezer   

       Scrooge shirking his duties at dawn’s early lighter fluid mistaken identity culture

       dump).

                        Keith, the fascist extraordinaire

colored only between the lines,

melting melted snow

                                                HEAD ON

                                     (screwed        on                    BACKWARDS)—

                                                                                                            that

                                                                                                ‘s         enough

tho

                        may

            be                                                        NOT

enough

                                                AT

ALL.

            Cursed, cursed, cursed overlooking an overwhelmed bear scrounging around for

            centipede pill to sell on the black market.

                                                            an

                                                attempted

                                    assassination                           of a

                        FRENCH DIPLOMAT                                               failed

                                                            (how do you define failure?) / .

 Yourself a savior.

Your pants on fire.

Your spawn sweltering.

 This is

no time

for gymnastics! (Simon pulled the rug out from under)

                                                (Simone buried gold teeth under fountains)

             As

long                 toothless

                                    as

squirming                               in triangular imitation

                                                            leather kidneys.

 Cannot.

            Will not.

                        Should not.

Judgmental frostbite & the somehow misleading conditions of modernity.

                                                The UNIVERSE of ZERO

                                                            (0!)

Joshua Martin is a Philadelphia based writer and filmmaker, who currently works in a library. He is the author of the book Vagabond fragments of a hole (Schism Neuronics). He has had pieces previously published in The Vital Sparks, Breakwater Review, Ink & Voices, The Free Library of the Internet Void, and Paragraph Line. His films have screened at various film festivals including The Pineapple Underground Film Festival, New Filmmakers, Film Al Fresco, Views from the Underground, and The Shooting Wall Film Festival.

[pallanophblargh]

Hey there! 😀 I've wanted to ask about Aequis anatomy esp. of the head, since I'm not sure how far I can go with expressions. So my first question: EARS. How flexible are they, and thus, how important are they in communication? And second: I'm not sure if I just missed it, but do you have a drawing of an aequis skull somewhere? I'd love to see and maybe it would help me understand the teeth (and 'lips') a bit better. Keep up the great work, I love seeing all those things you come up with! ❤

Ah yes, Aequis heads, the hardest part, if we don’t count their feet. 

Ears! Ears are very flexible, even if I never really draw them doing anything other than being neutral? Their primary reason for being mobile is for pinpointing sound, though they do convey some communication/emotional state. Tucking the ears closed and into the feathers (if not diving/cold/etc.) implies a defensive measure, indicating possibility of aggression, or preemptively defending themselves from perceived harm. Forward pointing ears denote alertness, or eagerness, focus, interest, etc. I’m still not very good at showing how the cartilage of the ear folds, but… maybe I need to sculpt it. (Ha oh gravy…)

I had an old post of an early Aequis skull here, but I figured I’d do up a fresh sketch with some other little sketchy details. I haven’t decided if I want Aequis to have an avian styled sclerotic ring yet, because I need to do more research.

The skull is fairly long, and I still need to do a front facing view, which I’m currently avoiding because symmetry has never been my friend and there’s still some references I want to dig up to spare myself some trouble! The teeth are triangular, sharply pointed, and I’m leaning towards them having a bit of an edge to them, possibly similar to shark’s teeth? They slice off chunks of meat and swallow them whole, and whatever the teeth can’t get to, the tongue will find. (it’s basically got sharp spicules coating the top that will de-flesh any stubborn crevices.) Back to the teeth again: I’m leaning to the top front teeth being a single fused tooth, forming a strong, piercing point. The bottom front teeth have a smooth gap between them, where the top fused tooth fits snugly. 

The lips are fairly flexible: far more than a bird’s, anyway, but not as equipped for fine motor skills as ours are. They can lift away from the teeth, and the lower lip is most flexible near the point of the jaw. The flexibility of the lip assists with grooming (and possibly vocalizing/general expression) because the lip works alongside the comb-like spicules that line the inside of the “beaked” upper lip to groom feathers.

I feel like I’m forgetting something I was going to add… let me know if I did! This just reminds me that I need to do some Aequis expressions and body language basics somewhere down the line. :D

#Aequis #Aequis questions #Aequis anatomical musings #questions #April attempts answers #I need to own some replica skulls I think #and get a better avian reference book #ALL THE REFERENCES

[arrowstheory]

ARROW THEORY FULL OF JOY TS021

FULL OF JOY

What are we to do to be born full of joy, daring with rapture, pretenders of this silent moment where every reflex seems to be gagging and the will to live takes away the power of death? Stillness counts again this great time, measured by space without events. And the glory of the gods allows you to run around the lamp with wisdom burning. The sound of your trumpet will not move the walls, nor will it echo in the distance. Joy will fill your lungs with rush. An invigorating breath will pass over the valley, giving the trees and grass sway green, and adding notes to the streams. The reflections on the track will clink, and the door creaks open joyfully. Nothing stands in the way of us anymore. Rusty tanks will overgrow with grass. The minefields won't explode at all. And people will grow back hands and stumps will turn into ordinary ones. Burned birds will recover their feathers. The poisoned fish will swim to their children telling their heroic deeds. Should one be born at this point? Remember the clay your mother. O sweet Ishtar, lover of my body!

Relanium tastes like your lips today, Marija. That's why I don't trust anyone. When they come from above in thin voices to tell me that it has to be done, I will not believe them, even if they have double antennae. 1.6 to 1.8 is the best proportion of trust application. Golden divina proportio. Or somehow and finally to number one. I lie sweaty in the shade and the cones under the blanket hurt me. The children nearby are hunting lizards and the ants have got my book about the secret weapon of Wunderwaffe. The waiter sluggishly prepares a goblet of juice and an umbrella. And I don't trust all of them. I don't even solve the crossword puzzles because I can't believe that the stacker made them meaningful. It's all crap. I only trust the sun and the stars who keep muttering under their breaths. Seemingly in embarrassment, or perhaps in sclerotic paroxysms, they tell old jokes to each other, breaking the same memories of Ben Akiba and Beroess. It's finally two hundred years! The mule settled and stuck to the drowned vessels. The honey had fermented from my saliva, making the clocks greedily drink every second of honey to mind. Well, they can't be trusted. So when they came too close to me, crossing my personal distance and bringing my eyes closer to my face, I ran for help, leaving my blanket and clothes behind. Did I hear the truth when they spoke to me? Do I want to believe in her? After all, this cannot be happening, and humanity is not something banal and funny games in their hands. Though I don't trust me, I know they told the truth. And about Creation and about the Earth. I have no escape, nor do I need one. For what? No more fire burns, no evil lurks in my dreams. I am a being whose hair grows at one end, and without a barber it can reach the Earth. The whole body is almost hairless, taken from a fish. My second brain is in my heart and I can feel it. They are sitting there, recorded in the book. Decorated with a withered row of figures. You can always trigger them by blinking three times with your eyes ...

There is symmetry of the structure of muscles and skeleton, and there is no such symmetry in the internal organs. How is that? It's just temporary and stupid. And artificial. It's a makeshift. Unfinished and clunky. Hip mismatch to give birth to large heads. Imperfect when it is supposed to move. Erroneous as a system of blood and lymph water tubes. And those non-regrowth limbs and teeth. Nails and teeth should grow back, not nails and hair. For what? It's a caricature. Hairless balloon, you will puncture and escape from it. Even madness. Even the wince of a smile.

They wore gray coats and some, unfading to the ground. They told me quickly, very quickly what is and what has been and what will be with us. They knew I was going to run away and that it was too cruel. Certainly not comfortable. Years later, I know what it was about. They too have a conscience and a god and fear. They'll come for me later when it's needed. That is why I do not trust the facts and the purpose of the salto mortale. Relanium gives you an idea of ​​the magnitude of the threat, especially when it tastes like your sweet mouth.

I am heavenly today, and they do not want me to grow wings in glory. I let the mumbles out of my mouth. About dry fingers pulling a bead. With a light broom, I fight off the burden of memories of the slow flies. I guard the real fire and only fear it. I also have it in my heart and I light it in yours. Blood pulses in the veins and we see the signs. In the sky and in the sea and in the sand. Dawn. Soprano. It starts in chapter TS001. tutututurr at www.kuby.pl

#kubypl

[eyeofhorus237]

Vision is the most important sense for birds, since good eyesight is essential for safe flight, and this group has a number of adaptations which give visual acuity superior to that of other vertebrate groups; a pigeon has been described as "two eyes with wings".[1] The avian eye resembles that of a reptile, with ciliary muscles that can change the shape of the lens rapidly and to a greater extent than in the mammals. Birds have the largest eyes relative to their size in the animal kingdom, and movement is consequently limited within the eye's bony socket.[1] In addition to the two eyelids usually found in vertebrates, it is protected by a third transparent movable membrane. The eye's internal anatomy is similar to that of other vertebrates, but has a structure, the pecten oculi, unique to birds.

Some bird groups have specific modifications to their visual system linked to their way of life. Birds of prey have a very high density of receptors and other adaptations that maximise visual acuity. The placement of their eyes gives them good binocular vision enabling accurate judgement of distances. Nocturnal species have tubular eyes, low numbers of colour detectors, but a high density of rod cells which function well in poor light. Terns, gulls and albatrosses are amongst the seabirds which have red or yellow oil droplets in the colour receptors to improve distance vision especially in hazy conditions.

Extraocular anatomy

The eye of a bird most closely resembles that of the reptiles. Unlike the mammalian eye, it is not spherical, and the flatter shape enables more of its visual field to be in focus. A circle of bony plates, the sclerotic ring, surrounds the eye and holds it rigid, but an improvement over the reptilian eye, also found in mammals, is that the lens is pushed further forward, increasing the size of the image on the retina.[2]

Most birds cannot move their eyes, although there are exceptions, such as the great cormorant.[3] Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, useful for detecting predators, while those with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate distances when hunting.[4] The American woodcock probably has the largest visual field of any bird, 360° in the horizontal plane, and 180° in the vertical plane.[5]

The nictitating membrane of a

masked lapwing

The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third concealed eyelid that sweeps horizontally across the eye like a windscreen wiper.[6] The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds when they are under water.[7] When sleeping, the lower eyelid rises to cover the eye in most birds, with the exception of the horned owls where the upper eyelid is mobile.[8]

The eye is also cleaned by tear secretions from the lachrymal gland and protected by an oily substance from the Harderian glands which coats the cornea and prevents dryness. The eye of a bird is larger compared to the size of the animal than for any other group of animals, although much of it is concealed in its skull. The ostrich has the largest eye of any land vertebrate, with an axial length of 50 mm (2 in), twice that of the human eye.[1]

Bird eye size is broadly related to body mass. A study of five orders (parrots, pigeons, petrels, raptors and owls) showed that eye mass is proportional to body mass, but as expected from their habits and visual ecology, raptors and owls have relatively large eyes for their body mass.[9]

Behavioural studies show that many avian species focus on distant objects preferentially with their lateral and monocular field of vision, and birds will orientate themselves sideways to maximise visual resolution. For a pigeon, resolution is twice as good with sideways monocular vision than forward binocular vision, whereas for humans the converse is true.[1]

The performance of the eye in low light levels depends on the distance between the lens and the retina, and small birds are effectively forced to be diurnal because their eyes are not large enough to give adequate night vision. Although many species migrate at night, they often collide with even brightly lit objects like lighthouses or oil platforms. Birds of prey are diurnal because, although their eyes are large, they are optimised to give maximum spatial resolution rather than light gathering, so they also do not function well in poor light.[10] Many birds have an asymmetry in the eye's structure which enables them to keep the horizon and a significant part of the ground in focus simultaneously. The cost of this adaptation is that they have myopia in the lower part of their visual field.[1]

Birds with relatively large eyes compared to their body mass, such as common redstarts and European robins sing earlier at dawn than birds of the same size and smaller body mass. However, if birds have the same eye size but different body masses, the larger species sings later than the smaller. This may be because the smaller bird has to start the day earlier because of weight loss overnight.[11] Overnight weight loss for small birds is typically 5-10% and may be over 15% on cold winter nights.[11] In one study, robins put on more mass in their dusk feeding when nights were cold.[12]

Nocturnal birds have eyes optimised for visual sensitivity, with large corneas relative to the eye's length, whereas diurnal birds have longer eyes relative to the corneal diameter to give greater visual acuity. Information about the activities of extinct species can be deduced from measurements of the sclerotic ring and orbit depth. For the latter measurement to be made, the fossil must have retained its three-dimensional shape, so activity pattern cannot be determined with confidence from flattened specimens like Archaeopteryx, which has a complete sclerotic ring but no orbit depth measurement.[13

Anatomy of the eye

The main structures of the bird eye are similar to those of other vertebrates. The outer layer of the eye consists of the transparent cornea at the front, and two layers of sclera — a tough white collagen fibre layer which surrounds the rest of the eye and supports and protects the eye as a whole. The eye is divided internally by the lens into two main segments: the anterior segment and the posterior segment. The anterior chamber is filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humour, and the posterior chamber contains the vitreous humour, a clear jelly-like substance.

The lens is a transparent convex or 'lens' shaped body with a harder outer layer and a softer inner layer. It focuses the light on the retina. The shape of the lens can be altered by ciliary muscles which are directly attached to the lens capsule by means of the zonular fibres. In addition to these muscles, some birds also have a second set, Crampton's muscles, that can change the shape of the cornea, thus giving birds a greater range of accommodation than is possible for mammals. This accommodation can be rapid in some diving water birds such as in the mergansers. The iris is a coloured muscularly operated diaphragm in front of the lens which controls the amount of light entering the eye. At the centre of the iris is the pupil, the variable circular area through which the light passes into the eye.[2][14]

The retina is a relatively smooth curved multi-layered structure containing the photosensitive rod and cone cells with the associated neurons and blood vessels. The density of the photoreceptors is critical in determining the maximum attainable visual acuity. Humans have about 200,000 receptors per mm2, but the house sparrow has 400,000 and the common buzzard 1,000,000. The photoreceptors are not all individually connected to the optic nerve, and the ratio of nerve ganglia to receptors is important in determining resolution. This is very high for birds; the white wagtail has 100,000 ganglion cells to 120,000 photoreceptors.[2]

Rods are more sensitive to light, but give no colour information, whereas the less sensitive cones enable colour vision. In diurnal birds, 80% of the receptors may be cones (90% in some swifts) whereas nocturnal owls have almost all rods. As with other vertebrates except placental mammals, some of the cones may be double cones. These can amount to 50% of all cones in some species.[15]

Towards the centre of the retina is the fovea (or the less specialised, area centralis) which has a greater density of receptors and is the area of greatest forward visual acuity, i.e. sharpest, clearest detection of objects. In 54% of birds, including birds of prey, kingfishers, hummingbirds and swallows, there is second fovea for enhanced sideways viewing. The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres which carry messages from the eye to the relevant parts of the brain. Like mammals, birds have a small blind spot without photoreceptors at the optic disc, under which the optic nerve and blood vessels join the eye.[2]

The pecten is a poorly understood body consisting of folded tissue which projects from the retina. It is well supplied with blood vessels and appears to keep the retina supplied with nutrients,[1] and may also shade the retina from dazzling light or aid in detecting moving objects.[2] Pecten oculi is abundantly filled with melanin granules which have been proposed to absorb stray light entering the bird eye to reduce background glare. Slight warming of pecten oculi due to absorption of light by melanin granules has been proposed to enhance metabolic rate of pecten. This is suggested to help increase secretion of nutrients into the vitreous body, eventually to be absorbed by the avascular retina of birds for improved nutrition.[16] Extra-high enzymic activity of alkaline phosphatase in pecten oculi has been proposed to support high secretory activity of pecten to supplement nutrition of the retina.[17]

The choroid is a layer situated behind the retina which contains many small arteries and veins. These provide arterial blood to the retina and drain venous blood. The choroid contains melanin, a pigment which gives the inner eye its dark colour, helping to prevent disruptive reflections.

#bird

[verywildwildnature]

Oyster: useful properties and method of preparation

Under natural conditions, oyster found in the woods on the stumps, diameter fallen on the loose and dead standing trees, suhobochinah, logs, decks and other wood substrates. It grows on the wood of aspen, poplar, birch, linden, hornbeam, alder, apple, chestnut and other hardwoods. Oyster mushrooms can be seen in city parks, squares and gardens.

 Oyster mushroom grows in large groups in the form of aggregates, with up to 30 or more individual mushrooms; mass of such aggregates can reach 2-3kg. The most common fungi imbricate arranged one above the other or side by side without any regularity. Occasionally there are single instances.

 Mass oyster mushrooms appear in the September-October, when the night temperature dropped to 0-6ºS and daytime raised to of 12-14 combined with high relative humidity. Oyster is resistant to frost, with the onset of fruiting bodies which stop growing and harden, but after the thaw of the fungus growth can continue. It is enough thermophilic, but grows well in a slightly shaded locations.

 Large requirements oyster makes to the substrate humidity, which is growing, and relative humidity. During the growth substrate mycelium should contain 68-72% moisture, and the relative humidity is in the range of 70-80%; time of growth fruiting bodies - respectively 60% and 90-95%. The optimum acidity for the development of the substrate is a mushroom pH 5,2-7,0 and growth - 5.2-5.8.

 Cap oyster mushroom convex, irregularly rounded, shell-shaped, tongue, often auriculate, smooth, naked, fibrous, sometimes with a white coating, initially dark-colored (dark brown or dark gray), later gray, gray-brown, gray-brown , often with a bluish bloom, fade in the center with a diameter of up to 15cm, sometimes 25-30cm. Plates white or whitish, straight, more or less frequently spaced, to a greater or lesser extent on decurrent leg. Stem is white, dense, mostly often hairy, up to 3-4cm. Along with a well-developed, relatively long (up to 8 cm) leg side there, barely visible legs, sometimes non-existent. Flesh is white, juicy, young mushrooms soft, with age becomes a bit tough wool and fiber, and even probkovidnoy leg, with the smell of damp flour. Fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom contains 40-50% crude protein, 3.2% fat, 1-2% carbohydrates, B vitamins (B1, B2), C, rich in trace elements. The protein that has all the essential amino acids for humans, their ratio is close to the protein of chicken eggs.

 The fungus has a number of health benefits, which is especially important due to the pollution of the environment at the present time: prevents the development of tumors, includes bioelements that increase the body’s resistance to radionuclides. It was found that both the mycelium and fruiting bodies (cap and stem) help reduce cholesterol, triglycerides and peroxidation products in animals, which is a proof of their anti-sclerotic effect. Calories 1 kg of fresh mushrooms is 350-360 calories (such as the white fungus) and is comparable to the calorie vegetables.

 Oyster mushrooms can be eaten fried, stewed or in soups, pies. It does not lose its flavor on drying, salting and pickling.

#oyster mushrooms #mushroomcultivation

[naopu-blog]

Image from page 402 of “A treatise on anatomy, physiology and hygiene : designed for colleges, academies and families” (1850)

Identifier: treatiseonanatom00cutt Title: A treatise on anatomy, physiology and hygiene : designed for colleges, academies and families Year: 1850 (1850s) Authors: Cutter, Calvin, 1807-1873? Subjects: Physiology Anatomy Hygiene Anatomy Physiology Hygiene Publisher: Boston : B.B. Mussey Contributing Library: Columbia University Libraries Digitizing Sponsor: Open Knowledge Commons

View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book

Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book.

Text Appearing Before Image: he nerve of the opposite side. Theythen diverge, and enter the globe of the eyes at their backpart, where they expand, and form a soft, whitish membrane. 893. The globe, or ball of the eye, is an optical instru-ment of the most perfect construction. The sides of the globesare composed of Coats, or membranes. The interior of theglobe is filled v/ith refracting Humors, or medi-ums. 890. Whicli sense contributes most to the enjoyment of man ? What dowe perceive by this sense ? What is said of the mechanism of the eye ?801—916. Give i/te ayiatomy of the organs of vision. 891. Of what does theapparatusof vision consist ? 892. Describe the optic nerve. 893. DescribeIho glob^ of the eye. AKATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 395 894. The coats are three in number: 1st. The Scle^rotic and Corne-a. 2d. The Choroid^ Iris, arjd CiVia-ryprocesses. 3d. The Reti-na. 895. The humors are also three in number: 1st. TheAque-oK^, or watery. 2d. The CrystaUine, (lens.) 3d. TheVitre-ous, or glassy. Fig. 137;

Text Appearing After Image: Fig. 137. The second pair of nerves. 1, 1, Globe of the eye : the one on the lertis perfect, but that on the right has the sclerotic and choroid coats removed, to showthe retina. 2, The crossing of the optic nerve. 5, The pons varolii. 6, The me-dulla oblongata. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, The origin of several pahs of cranial nerves. 896. The sclerotic coat is a dense, fibrous membrane,and invests about four fifths of the globe of the eye. It givesform to this organ, and serves for the attachment of the mus-cles that move the eye in various directions. This coat, fromthe brilliancy of its whiteness, is known by the name of the 894. Name tke coats of the eye. 895. Name the humors of the eye.Explain fig 137. 896, Describe the sclerotic coat 396 AXATOIMT, niYSIOLOGY, A^D HYGIENE. white of the eye. Anteriorly, tlie sclerotic coat presents abevelled ed^e, which receives the cornea in the same way thata watch-glass is received by the groove in its case. 897. The cornea is the transparent proj

Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability – coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Posted by Internet Archive Book Images on 2014-07-30 09:37:55

Tagged: , bookid:treatiseonanatom00cutt , bookyear:1850 , bookdecade:1850 , bookcentury:1800 , bookauthor:Cutter__Calvin__1807_1873_ , booksubject:Physiology , booksubject:Anatomy , booksubject:Hygiene , bookpublisher:Boston___B_B__Mussey , bookcontributor:Columbia_University_Libraries , booksponsor:Open_Knowledge_Commons , bookleafnumber:402 , bookcollection:medicalheritagelibrary , bookcollection:ColumbiaUniversityLibraries , bookcollection:americana

The post Image from page 402 of “A treatise on anatomy, physiology and hygiene : designed for colleges, academies and families” (1850) appeared first on Good Info.

[howtopronounceenglishcorrectly]

Learn how to pronounce Sclerotic in English --- SCLEROTIC Pronunciation of Sclerotic: /sklɪ'rɑːtɪk/ - [scle'rot·ic] (a.) Definition of Sclerotic: Hard; firm; indurated; -- applied especially in anatomy to the firm outer coat of the eyeball, which is often cartilaginous and sometimes bony. ★ http://Learn2Pronounce.com ★ How to pronounce Sclerotic | English pronunciation: https://youtu.be/A8WuvcjvE5o

#how to pronounce How to pronounce Sclerotic | English pronunciation #pronunciation of How to pronounc

[toofurybeard-blog1]

Home Remedies for Jaundice in Adults Jaundice may be a liver disorder and yellow staining of the skin and sclerotic coat that happens thanks to the discharge of a substance referred to as haematoidin within the blood. It may be detected once haematoidinconcentrations reach > 2mg/dl. Jaundice in adults is especially caused by excretion of haematoidin that is usually fashioned by the daily destruction and break down of red blood cells (RBC) within the blood. Also, conditions like black vomit, T.B., malaria, aldohexose deficiency, pregnancy, malformations of the canal, liver issues lead to jaundice. Symptoms of jaundice People with jaundice have below signs and symptoms. Yellow staining of the skin Yellow discoloration within the sclerotic coat (the whites of the eyes) and mucose membranes Light-colored stools Dark-colored weewee Nausea Itchiness Diarrhea Abdominal pain Fever / chills Weakness/restlessness Loss of appetence Headaches Swelling within the legs & abdomen Natural home remedies to treat jaundice 1. Bitter gourd juice To get effective cure of jaundice, drink bitter gourd juice within the early morning daily. Take one little size bitter gourd and mash it to extracts its juice. Drink a 1/4th cup of the juice within the morning. 2. Aloe Vera Aloe vera is beneficial in solidification liver issues. Saponins gift within the Aloe vera act as a natural cleaner. Aloe vera greatly supports digestion, detoxification, liver cleansing and renewal for body wellbeing. Take Indian Aloe vera and use a spoon to extract the gel and blend it with black salt and ginger. Have this juice within the morning for ten days. 3. Barley Drinking barley juice throughout every day is another smart remedy for jaundice. Barley has natural drugproperties that facilitate to get rid of waste from the body. In a glass of water, add one teaspoon of roast barley powder and one teaspoon of honey. Consume this drink doubly every day. 4. Lemon It has medicine properties that facilitate in treating jaundice. It helps to unblock digestive juice ducts and protects the liver from cell harm.jaundice symptoms Take one cup of water and add ten – twelve lemon leaves into it and boils it for regarding five minutes. Then drink it. Extract the juice from a pair of lemons and add it to a glass of water. Have this drink a minimum of thrice every day. Add few drops of lemon oil to 30ml of coconut or oil and blend well. Apply this mixture in your abdomen and liver space and leave it till it gets absorbed. 5. Sugarcane It helps in strengthening your liver, and it's a good remedy for individuals with jaundice. It helps to stay your haematoidin level at management and aids in correct digestion, and liver functioning. Consume one – a pair of glasses of sugarcane juice with lime a day. 6. Basil leaves It is popularly called tulsi that may be a nice profit for the liver and helps to treat jaundice. Chew few contemporary basil leaves daily. Grind some basil leaves and add 0.5 a glass of freshly ready radish juice to that. to induce higher results, drink this juice for two – three weeks. Lifestyle advise and diet management Eat solely eater foods. Avoid uptake significant foods that area unit too spicy, hot and oily. Avoid canned and preserved foods. Skip chocolates, store things, and alcohol. Increase the consumption of flour, brown rice. Eat additional dried fruits. Stop doing redundant exercises and avoid stress. Give your complete body rest.

[techgizmohub]

#China #Gizmo #Hub #Impacting #Military #Printing #tech

[economicsresearch]

pages 171c and 172 - This is my kind of crew!

Helmet protects your head.

Goggles protect your eyes.

Look at those fuckers look. This party is gunna be off the fucking chain. And so fucking safe!

#biology #zoology #biologist #zoologist #epidermis #cornea #retina #nerve #eye #simple #coat #sclerotic #vitreous #humour #pigment layer #optic #optic nerve #ciliary body #iris #pupil #eyelid #crew #squad #squad goals #helmet #goggles #party safe #partygirls #party

[yourjuhyunghan]

Fernand Khnopff on ichthyology, Hypnos Thanatos on Gnathostomata, Osteichthyes, Guiyu oneiros 鬼魚 guǐyú "ghost fish" from Greek ὄνειρος “dream”

Fernand #Khnopff on ichthyology, Hypnos Thanatos on Gnathostomata, Osteichthyes, Guiyu oneiros 鬼魚 guǐyú "ghost fish" from Greek ὄνειρος “dream”

http://blog.naver.com/artnouveau19/221256149236

Fernand Khnopff and ichthyology, Hypnos and Thanatos on Gnathostomata γνάθος (“gnathos") "jaw" + στόμα(stoma) "mouth", Osteichthyes bony fish, Guiyu oneiros 鬼魚 guǐyú "ghost fish" and the specific name oneiros is from Greek ὄνειρος “dream", The Tsinghua-Lancet Commission on Healthy Cities in China

Gnathostomata /ˌneɪθoʊstoʊˈmɑːtə/ are the jawed vertebrates. The term derives from Greek: γνάθος (gnathos) "jaw" + στόμα(stoma) "mouth". Gnathostome diversity comprises roughly 60,000 species, which accounts for 99% of all living vertebrates. In addition to opposing jaws, living gnathostomes have teeth, paired appendages, and a horizontal semicircular canal of the inner ear, along with physiological and cellular anatomical characters such as the myelin sheathes of neurons. Another is an adaptive immune system that uses V(D)J recombination to create antigen recognition sites, rather than using genetic recombination in the variable lymphocyte receptor gene.[1]

It is now assumed that Gnathostomata evolved from ancestors that already possessed a pair of both pectoral and pelvic fins.[2] In addition to this, some placoderms were shown to have a third pair of paired appendages, that in males had been modified to claspers and basal plates in females, a pattern not seen in any other vertebrate group.[3]

The Osteostraci are generally considered the sister taxon of Gnathostomata.[4][5][6]

It is believed that the jaws evolved from anterior gill support arches that had acquired a new role, being modified to pump water over the gills by opening and closing the mouth more effectively – the buccal pump mechanism. The mouth could then grow bigger and wider, making it possible to capture larger prey. This close and open mechanism would, with time, become stronger and tougher, being transformed into real jaws.

Newer research suggests that a branch of Placoderms was most likely the ancestor of present-day gnathostomes. A 419-million-year-old fossil of a placoderm named Entelognathus had a bony skeleton and anatomical details associated with cartilaginous and bony fish, demonstrating that the absence of a bony skeleton in Chondrichthyes is a derived trait.[7] The fossil findings of primitive bony fishes such as Guiyu oneiros and Psarolepis, which lived contemporaneously with Entelognathus and had pelvic girdles more in common with placoderms than with other bony fish, show that it was a relative rather than a direct ancestor of the extant gnathostomes.[8] It also indicates that spiny sharks and Chondrichthyes represent a single sister group to the bony fishes.[9]Fossils findings of juvenile placoderms, which had true teeth that grew on the surface of the jawbone and had no roots, making it impossible to replace or regrow as they broke or wore down as they grew older, proves the common ancestor of all gnathostomes had teeth and place the origin of teeth along with, or soon after, the evolution of jaws.[10][11]

Late Ordovician-aged microfossils of what have been identified as scales of either acanthodians[12] or "shark-like fishes",[13] may mark Gnathostomata's first appearance in the fossil record. Undeniably unambiguous gnathostome fossils, mostly of primitive acanthodians, begin appearing by the early Silurian, and become abundant by the start of the Devonian.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnathostomata

Osteichthyes /ˌɒstiːˈɪkθi.iːz/, popularly referred to as the bony fish, is a diverse taxonomic group of fish that have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue, as opposed to cartilage. The vast majority of fish are members of Osteichthyes, which is an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of 45 orders, and over 435 families and 28,000 species.[1] It is the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. The group Osteichthyes is divided into the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) and lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii). The oldest known fossils of bony fish are about 420 million years ago, which are also transitional fossils, showing a tooth pattern that is in between the tooth rows of sharks and bony fishes.[2]

Osteichthyes can be compared to Euteleostomi. In paleontology, the terms are synonymous. In ichthyology, the difference is that Euteleostomi presents a cladistic view which includes the terrestrial tetrapods that evolved from lobe-finned fish, whereas on a traditional view, Osteichthyes includes only fishes and is therefore paraphyletic. However, recently published phylogenetic trees treat the Osteichthyes as a clade.

Characteristics Bony fish are characterized by a relatively stable pattern of cranial bones, rooted, medial insertion of mandibular muscle in the lower jaw. The head and pectoral girdles are covered with large dermal bones. The eyeball is supported by a sclerotic ring of four small bones, but this characteristic has been lost or modified in many modern species. The labyrinth in the inner earcontains large otoliths. The braincase, or neurocranium, is frequently divided into anterior and posterior sections divided by a fissure.

Early bony fish had simple lungs (a pouch on either side of the esophagus) which helped them breathe in low-oxygen water. In many bony fish these have evolved into swim bladders, which help the body create a neutral balance between sinking and floating. (The lungs of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals were inherited from their bony fish ancestors.)[10][11] [12] They do not have fin spines, but instead support the fin with lepidotrichia (bone fin rays). They also have an operculum, which helps them breathe without having to swim.

Bony fish have no placoid scales. Mucus glands coat the body. Most have smooth and overlapping ganoid, cycloid or ctenoidscales.

Guiyu oneiros, the earliest known bony fish, lived during the Late Silurian, 419 million years ago).[4][5] It has the combination of both ray-finned and lobe-finned features, although analysis of the totality of its features place it closer to lobe-finned fish.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteichthyes

Guiyu oneiros is the earliest articulated bony fish discovered. The generic name Guiyu is a transliteration of the Mandarin 鬼魚 guǐyú "ghost fish" and the specific name oneiros is from Greek ὄνειρος "dream". Fossils of Guiyu have been found in what is now Qujing, Yunnan, China, in a late Silurian marine strata, about 419 million years old. Guiyu remains have been found articulated, missing only the caudal fin. The living fish is estimated to have been 33 cm long.[1][2]

Guiyu was described by Chinese palaeontologist Min Zhu and others in 2009, based on a near-complete articulated specimen. It was described as a basal lobe-finned fish with anatomical features of both ray-finned and lobe-finned fishes, although, analysis of the totality of its features place it closer to the class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes).[3] Guiyu sheds light on the early diversification of bony fishes. This clade, the osteichthyans, splits in two clades: the lobe-finned and the ray-finned (Actinopterygii) fishes. According to new data from Guiyu, this split occurred no later than 419 million years ago, during the early Devonian period. Guiyu had spine-bearing pectoral girdle, a feature which can be found in primitive gnathostome vertebrates. Other early bony-fish with remarkable features include Andreolepis, Lophosteus, Psarolepis, Ligulalepis and Dialipina.

Guiyu is part of the Xiaoxiang fauna which is rich in fossils representing a marine ecosystem. Found in the late Ludlow-aged Kuanti Formation, the remains were dated using conodonts as index fossils. The Xiaoxiang fauna also includes galeaspids, placoderms and acanthodians.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiyu_oneiros

The Lancet‏Verified account @TheLancet More ''By 2030, China is estimated to have an urban population in excess of 1 billion people, spread across 221 cities of more than 1 million people.'' Lancet editors introduce new commission on #HealthyCities in #China @Tsinghua_Uni

The Tsinghua-Lancet Commission on Healthy Cities in China: unlocking the power of cities for a healthy China Published: April 17, 2018 Executive Summary Increasingly, people leave the countryside to pursue better opportunities in cities. Nowhere has urbanisation been more rapid and pronounced than in China. This Lancet Commission, led by Tsinghua University in Beijing, examines the particular challenges and opportunities for health in China’s cities, with regard to health risks, health promotion, environmental health, and health-care delivery. For cities to be active participants in China’s aspiration as an ecocivilisation, there needs to be increased participation in health-related activities by stakeholders, with fuller integration of health into all civic policies. From this dialogue should come shared goals that are assessed regularly, and research on interventions to improve health for people who live in cities.

Comment

Healthy cities: key to a healthy future in China

William Summerskill, Helena Hui Wang, Richard Horton The Lancet Full-Text HTMLPDF Commission

The Tsinghua–Lancet Commission on Healthy Cities in China: unlocking the power of cities for a healthy China

Jun Yang, José G Siri, Justin V Remais, Qu Cheng, Han Zhang, Karen K Y Chan, Zhe Sun, Yuanyuan Zhao, Na Cong, Xueyan Li, Wei Zhang, Yuqi Bai, Jun Bi, Wenjia Cai, Emily Y Y Chan, Wanqing Chen, Weicheng Fan, Hua Fu, Jianqing He, Hong Huang, John S Ji, Peng Jia, Xiaopeng Jiang, Mei-Po Kwan, Tianhong Li, Xiguang Li, Song Liang, Xiaofeng Liang, Lu Liang, Qiyong Liu, Yongmei Lu, Yong Luo, Xiulian Ma, Bernhard Schwartländer, Zhiyong Shen, Peijun Shi, Jing Su, Tinghai Wu, Changhong Yang, Yongyuan Yin, Qiang Zhang, Yinping Zhang, Yong Zhang, Bing Xu, Peng Gong The Lancet Published: April 17, 2018 Full-Text HTMLPDF

http://www.thelancet.com/commissions/healthy-cities-in-China?utm_campaign=tlwchinacities18&utm_content=69882427&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook

EU Food Health‏ @SciFoodHealth Feb 16 FOOD 2030 report highlights successful EU research & innovation outcomes on Food and Nutrition Security which will play a crucial role in future-proofing our food systems & achieving #FOOD2030EU objectives. #FoodInnovation http://www.fit4food2030.eu/news/

https://twitter.com/SciFoodHealth/status/964431428325752832

EU Maritime & Fish‏Verified account @EU_MARE Apr 17 More Scientific data are paramount to understand #OurOcean. The European Marine Observation & Data Netwrok brings together over 150 orgs to collect & make accessible marine data. Learn more about @EMODnet at http://europa.eu/!UV66dC  & explore the data portals at http://www.emodnet.eu

https://twitter.com/EU_MARE/status/986220306112110593

https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/marine_knowledge_2020_en

[davidslepkow]

(via Diana Jane Picolla's Physiomesh hernia mesh lawsuit v Ethicon - Hernia Mesh Recall Attorney | Individual Lawsuits)

(Below you will find a hernia mesh victim’s lawsuit against Johnson and Johnson and Ethicon alleging that Physiomesh hernia mesh is defective. This lawsuit was filed on 03/24/17 in United States District Court, Middle District of Florida, Tampa Division. In pertinent part the Plaintiff / victim alleged that “Plaintiff was forced to undergo multiple revision surgeries due to complications from Defendant’s defective hernia mesh, eventually resulting in a surgery to remove the mesh.”

The hernia mesh law firm representing the victim asserted that: “Defendants’ Physiomesh was defectively designed and/or manufactured, was not reasonably safe for its intended use in hernia repair, and the risks of the design outweighed any potential benefits associated with the design. As a result of the defective design and/or manufacture of the Physiomesh, there was an unreasonable risk of severe adverse reactions to the mesh or mesh components including: chronic pain; recurrence of hernia; foreign body response; rejection; infection; inadequate or failure of incorporation / ingrowth; migration; scarification; deformation of mesh; improper wound healing; excessive and chronic inflammation; adhesions to internal organs; erosion; abscess; fistula formation; granulomatous response; seroma formation; nerve damage; tissue damage and/or death; and other complications.”)

Physiomesh lawsuit 2018

MANY VICTIMS ARE SEARCHING THE INTERNET  FOR PHYSIOMESH HERNIA MESH LAWSUIT INFORMATION SUCH AS:

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UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

MIDDLE DISTRICT OF FLORIDA

TAMPA DIVISION

DIANA JANE PICOLLA, PLAINTIFF, V. JOHNSON & JOHNSON AND ETHICON, INC., DEFENDANTS.

Civil Action No.: JURY TRIAL DEMANDED

COMPLAINT Comes now Plaintiff, Diana Jane Picolla (“Plaintiff”), by and through undersigned counsel, and brings this action against Defendants Ethicon, Inc. and Johnson & Johnson (hereinafter “Defendants”), and alleges as follows: Parties 1. Plaintiff is, and was, at all relevant times, a citizen and resident of Florida and the United States. 2. Defendant Johnson & Johnson (“J&J”) is a corporation incorporated in New Jersey, and according to its website, the world’s largest and most diverse medical device and diagnostics company, with its principal place of business located at One Johnson & Johnson Plaza, New Brunswick, New Jersey. J&J has as its citizenship the State of New Jersey. 3. Defendant J&J organizes its subsidiary businesses into individual Business Units to coordinate the development, manufacture, testing, marketing promotion, training, distribution Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 1 of 14 PageID 1 Page 2 of 14 and sale of its products, including but not limited to its hernia repair mesh products. Within J&J there are three sectors: medical devices and diagnostics, pharmaceutical, and consumer. Within the medical devices and diagnostic sector are “Business Units” including the “Ethicon Franchise.” The Ethicon Franchise was charged by J&J with the design, development, promotion, marketing, testing, training, distribution and sale of the hernia repair mesh products at issue in this case. The Company Group Chairman and Worldwide Franchise Chairman for the Ethicon Franchise, Gary Pruden, is employed by J&J. The companies which comprise the Ethicon Franchise are thus controlled by J&J and include, but are not limited to, Ethicon Inc. 4. Defendant Ethicon, Inc. (“Ethicon”) is a wholly owned subsidiary of Defendant Johnson & Johnson. Defendant Ethicon is a corporation incorporated in the State of New Jersey with its principal place of business in Somerville, New Jersey. Ethicon is authorized and registered to transact business within the State of Florida. Ethicon has as its citizenship the State of New Jersey. 5. Ethicon is a medical device company involved in the research, development, testing, manufacture, production, marketing, promotion and/or sale of medical devices including Physiomesh (hereinafter may be referred to as the “product”). 6. J&J, directly and/or through the actions of Ethicon, has at all pertinent times been responsible for the research, development, testing, manufacture, production, marketing, promotion, distribution and/or sale of Physiomesh. 7. Defendants are individually, jointly and severally liable to Plaintiff for damages suffered by Plaintiff arising from the Defendants’ design, manufacture, marketing, labeling, distribution, sale and placement of its defective mesh products at issue in the instant action, Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 2 of 14 PageID 2 Page 3 of 14 effectuated directly and indirectly through their respective agents, servants, employees and/or owners, all acting within the course and scope of their representative agencies, services, employments and/or ownership. 8. Defendants are vicariously liable for the acts and/or omissions of its employees and/or agents who were at all times relevant hereto acting on behalf of Defendants and within the scope of their employment or agency with Defendants. Jurisdiction and Venue 9. This Court has subject-matter jurisdiction over this action pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1332(a) based on complete diversity of citizenship between Plaintiff and all Defendants. The amount in controversy exceeds $75,000. 10. This Court has personal jurisdiction over each of the Defendants pursuant to the Florida Long-Arm Statute, § 48.193. Defendants transact business within the State of Florida, and Defendants committed tortious acts and omissions in Florida. Defendants’ tortious acts and omissions caused injury to Plaintiff in the State of Florida. Defendants have purposefully engaged in the business of developing, manufacturing, publishing information, marketing, distributing, promoting and/or selling, either directly or indirectly, through third parties, as successor in interest, or other related entities, medical devices including Physiomesh in Florida, for which they derived significant and regular income. The Defendants reasonably expected that that their defective mesh products, including Physiomesh, would be sold and implanted in Florida. 11. Venue is proper in this Court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1391(b)(2). Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 3 of 14 PageID 3 Page 4 of 14 Facts Common To All Counts 12. On or about December 16, 2010, Plaintiff had 15 x 20 cm Physiomesh Composite mesh, implanted laparoscopically to repair an incisional hernia. 13. Defendants manufactured, sold, and/or distributed the Physiomesh device to Plaintiff, through her doctors, to be used for treatment of hernia repair. 14. Plaintiff was forced to undergo multiple revision surgeries due to complications from Defendant’s defective hernia mesh, eventually resulting in a surgery to remove the mesh. 15. Plaintiff has suffered and will continue to suffer physical pain and mental anguish. Defendants were responsible for the research, design, development, testing, manufacture, production, marketing, promotion, distribution and sale of Physiomesh, including providing the warnings and instructions concerning the product. 16. Among the intended purposes for which Defendants designed, manufactured and sold Physiomesh was used by surgeons for hernia repair surgeries, the purpose for which the Physiomesh was implanted in Plaintiff. 17. Defendants represented to Plaintiff and Plaintiff’s physicians that Physiomesh was a safe and effective product for hernia repair. 18. Defendants’ Physiomesh was defectively designed and/or manufactured, was not reasonably safe for its intended use in hernia repair, and the risks of the design outweighed any potential benefits associated with the design. As a result of the defective design and/or manufacture of the Physiomesh, there was an unreasonable risk of severe adverse reactions to the mesh or mesh components including: chronic pain; recurrence of hernia; foreign body response; rejection; infection; inadequate or failure of incorporation/ingrowth; migration; scarification; deformation of Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 4 of 14 PageID 4 Page 5 of 14 mesh; improper wound healing; excessive and chronic inflammation; adhesions to internal organs; erosion; abscess; fistula formation; granulomatous response; seroma formation; nerve damage; tissue damage and/or death; and other complications. 19. Physiomesh has a unique design incorporating five (5) distinct layers: two layers of polyglecaprone-25 (“Monocryl”) film covering two underlying layers of polydioxanone film (“PDS”), which in turn coat a polypropylene mesh. This design is not used in any other hernia repair product sold in the United States. The multi-layer coating was represented and promoted by the Defendants to prevent or minimize adhesion and inflammation and to facilitate incorporation of the mesh into the body, but it did not. Instead, the multi-layer coating prevented adequate incorporation of the mesh into the body and caused or contributed to an intense inflammatory and chronic foreign body response resulting in an adverse tissue reaction including migration and damage to surrounding tissue in the form of sclerotic, granulomatous and/or fibrotic tissue and improper healing. 20. When affixed to the body’s tissue, the impermeable multi-layer coating of the Physiomesh prevents fluid escape, which leads to seroma formation, and which in turn can cause infection, abscess formation and other complications. 21. The multi-layer coating provides a breeding ground for bacteria in which the bacteria cannot be eliminated by the body’s immune response, which allows infection to proliferate. 22. The multi-layer coating of Defendants’ Physiomesh is cytotoxic, immunogenic, and not biocompatible, which causes or contributes to complications such as delayed wound healing, inflammation, foreign body response, rejection, infection, and other complications. Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 5 of 14 PageID 5 Page 6 of 14 23. Defendants knew or should have known of the cytotoxic and immunogenic properties of the multi-layer coating of the Physiomesh prior to introducing it into the stream of commerce. 24. When the multi-layer coating of the Physiomesh is disrupted and/or degrades, the “naked” polypropylene mesh is exposed to the adjoining tissue and viscera, and can become adhered to organs, and cause damage to organs, and potentiate fistula formation. 25. These manufacturing and design defects associated with the Physiomesh were directly and proximately related to the injuries suffered by Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla. 26. Neither Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla nor her implanting physician were adequately warned or informed by Defendants of the defective and dangerous nature of Physiomesh. Moreover, neither Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla nor her implanting physician were adequately warned or informed by Defendants of the risks associated with the Physiomesh or the frequency, severity, or duration of such risks. 27. The Physiomesh implanted in Plaintiff failed to reasonably perform as intended. The mesh caused serious injury and had to be surgically removed via invasive surgery, and necessitated additional invasive surgery to repair the hernia that the Physiomesh was initially implanted to treat. 28. Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla’s severe adverse reaction, and the necessity for two surgical revisions of the Physiomesh, directly and proximately resulted from the defective and dangerous condition of the product and Defendants’ defective and inadequate warnings about the risks associated with the product, and the frequency, severity and duration of such risks. Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla has suffered, and will continue to suffer, both physical injury and pain and Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 6 of 14 PageID 6 Page 7 of 14 mental anguish, permanent and severe scarring and disfigurement, lost wages and earning capacity, and has incurred substantial medical bills and other expenses, resulting from the defective and dangerous condition of the product and from Defendants’ defective and inadequate warnings about the risks associated with the product. 29. In May of 2016, Defendants issued an “Urgent: Field Safety Notice” relating to its Physiomesh Flexible Composite Mesh, the same product implanted in Plaintiff, and sent such notification to hospitals and medical providers in various countries worldwide. In this safety notice, Defendants advise these providers of “a voluntary product recall”, citing two international device registries which reported data reflecting recurrence/reoperation rates after laproscopic placement as being higher than that observed from a data set relating to patient outcomes after being implanted with other mesh. However, in the United States, Defendants failed to issue a nationwide recall, opting instead to simply remove the product from shelves and cease further sales within the United States. COUNT I Strict Product Liability: Defective Design 30. At the time the Physiomesh that was implanted in Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla’s body, the product was defectively designed. As described above, there was an unreasonable risk that the product would not perform safely and effectively for the purposes for which it was intended, and Defendants failed to design against such dangers, and failed to provide adequate warnings and instructions concerning these risks. 31. Defendants expected and intended the Physiomesh product to reach users such as Plaintiff in the condition in which the product was sold. Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 7 of 14 PageID 7 Page 8 of 14 32. The implantation of Physiomesh in Plaintiff’s body was medically reasonable, and was a type of use that Defendants intended and foresaw when it designed, manufactured and sold the product. 33. The risks of the Physiomesh significantly outweigh any benefits that Defendants contend could be associated with the product. The multi-layer coating, which is not used in any other hernia mesh product sold in the United States, prevents tissue from incorporating into the mesh, leading to encapsulation, deformation, scarification and contraction, migration, erosion and rejection. The impermeable multi-layer coating leads to seroma formation, and provides a breeding ground for infection, and protects bacteria from being eliminated by the body’s natural immune response. 34. The multi-layer coating of the Physiomesh, which was marketed, promoted and intended as a barrier against adhesion to the internal organs, was only temporary; it was expected and intended to degrade over time inside the body. Thus, this coating prevented tissue ingrowth in the short term, and degraded in the long-term, eventually leaving the “naked” polypropylene mesh exposed to the internal viscera and tissues. The degradation of this multi-layer coating caused or exacerbated an intense inflammatory and foreign body reaction. Once exposed to the viscera, the polypropylene mesh will inevitably adhere to the viscera, initiating a cascade of adverse consequences. Any purported beneficial purpose of the multi-layer coating (to prevent adhesion to the internal viscera and organs) was non-existent; the product provided no benefit while substantially increasing the risks to the patient. 35. The polypropylene mesh within the defective multi-layer coating of the Physiomesh was in itself dangerous and defective, particularly when used in the manner intended Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 8 of 14 PageID 8 Page 9 of 14 by Defendants in the Physiomesh. When implanted adjacent to the intestines and other internal organs, as Defendants intended for Physiomesh, polypropylene mesh is unreasonably susceptible to adhesion, bowel perforation or erosion, fistula formation and bowel strangulation or hernia incarceration, and other injuries. 36. The appropriate treatment for complications associated with Physiomesh involves additional invasive surgery to remove the mesh from the body, thus eliminating any purported benefit that the mesh was intended to provide to the patient. 37. Physiomesh was designed and intended for intraperitoneal implantation, which involved the product being implanted in contact with the intestines and/or other internal organs, which unnecessarily increased the risks of adhesion, erosion, fistula formation, and other injuries. 38. At the time the Physiomesh was implanted in Plaintiff, there were safer feasible alternative designs for hernia mesh products that would have prevented the injuries he suffered. 39. The Physiomesh product cost significantly more than competitive products because of its unique multi-layer coating, even though the multi-layer coating provided no benefit to consumers, and increased the risks to patients implanted with these devices. 40. The Physiomesh implanted in Plaintiff failed to reasonably perform as intended, and had to be surgically removed necessitating further invasive surgery to repair the very issue that the product was intended to repair, and thus provided no benefit to him. 41. As a direct and proximate result of the defective and unreasonably dangerous condition of the product, Plaintiff suffered injuries and damages as summarized herein. COUNT II Strict Product Liability: Failure to Warn Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 9 of 14 PageID 9 Page 10 of 14 42. At the time the Physiomesh that was implanted in Plaintiff’s body, the warnings and instructions provided by Defendants for the Physiomesh were inadequate and defective. As described above, there was an unreasonable risk that the product would not perform safely and effectively for the purposes for which it was intended, and Defendants failed to design and/or manufacture against such dangers, and failed to provide adequate warnings and instructions concerning these risks. 43. Defendants expected and intended the Physiomesh product to reach users such as Plaintiff in the condition in which the product was sold. 44. Plaintiff and her physicians were unaware of the defects and dangers of Physiomesh, and were unaware of the frequency, severity and duration of the defects and risks associated with the Physiomesh. 45. The Defendants’ Instructions for Use provided with the Physiomesh expressly understates and misstates the risks known to be associated specifically with the Physiomesh by stating that “Potential adverse reactions are those typically associated with surgically implantable materials.” No other surgical mesh sold in the United States – and no other “surgically implantable material” – suffers the same serious design flaws as Physiomesh. No other device or material contains the dangerous and defective multi-layer coating, which itself causes or increases the risks of numerous complications, including prevention of incorporation, increased risk of seroma formation, immunologic response, increased risk for infection, and increased inflammatory reaction and foreign body response. Defendants provided no warning to physicians about the risks or increased risks specifically associated with the unique design of the Physiomesh. Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 10 of 14 PageID 10 Page 11 of 14 46. The Defendants’ Instructions for Use for the Physiomesh failed to adequately warn Plaintiff’s physicians of numerous risks which Defendants knew or should have known were associated with the Physiomesh, including the risks of the product’s inhibition of tissue incorporation, pain, immunologic response, dehiscence, encapsulation, rejection, migration, scarification, shrinkage/contraction, adhesion to internal organs and viscera, erosion through adjacent tissue and viscera, bowel obstruction, failure of repair/hernia recurrence, or hernia incarceration or strangulation. 47. Defendants failed to adequately train or warn Plaintiff or her physicians about the necessity for invasive surgical intervention in the event of complications, or how to properly treat such complications when they occurred. 48. Defendants failed to adequately warn Plaintiff or her physicians that the necessary surgical removal of the Physiomesh in the event of complications would leave the hernia unrepaired, and would necessitate further medical treatment to attempt to repair the same hernia that the failed Physiomesh was intended to treat. 49. Defendants represented to physicians, including Plaintiff’s physician, that the multi-layer coating would prevent or reduce adhesion, and expressly intended for the Physiomesh to be implanted in contact with the intestines and internal organs and marketed and promoted the product for said purpose. Defendants failed to warn physicians that the multi-layer coating prevented tissue ingrowth, which is the desired biologic response to an implantable mesh device. Defendants failed to warn physicians that the multi-layer coating was only temporary and therefore at best would provide only a temporary adhesion barrier, and when the coating inevitably degraded, the exposed polypropylene would become adhered to the organs or tissue. Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 11 of 14 PageID 11 Page 12 of 14 50. With respect to the complications that were listed in the Defendants’ warnings, Defendants provided no information or warning regarding the frequency, severity and duration of those complications, even though the complications associated with Physiomesh were more frequent, more severe and lasted longer than those with safer feasible alternative hernia repair treatments. 51. If Plaintiff and/or her physicians had been properly warned of the defects and dangers of Physiomesh, and of the frequency, severity and duration of the risks associated with the Physiomesh, Plaintiff would not have consented to allow the Physiomesh to be implanted in her body, and Plaintiff physicians would not have implanted the Physiomesh in Plaintiff. 52. As a direct and proximate result of the inadequate and defective warnings and instructions, Plaintiff suffered injuries and damages as summarized herein. COUNT III Negligence 53. Defendants had a duty to use reasonable care in designing, testing, inspecting, manufacturing, packaging, labeling, marketing, distributing, and preparing written instructions and warnings for Physiomesh, but failed to do so. 54. Defendants knew, or in the exercise of reasonable care should have known, that Physiomesh was defectively and unreasonably designed and/or manufactured, and was unreasonably dangerous and likely to injure patients in whom Physiomesh was implanted. Defendants knew or should have known that Plaintiff and her physicians were unaware of the dangers and defects inherent in the Physiomesh. 55. As a direct and proximate result of Defendants’ negligence in designing, testing, inspecting, manufacturing, packaging, labeling, marketing, distributing, and preparing written Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 12 of 14 PageID 12 Page 13 of 14 instructions and warnings for Physiomesh, Plaintiff suffered injuries and damages as summarized herein. COUNT IV Punitive Damages 56. Defendants continued to manufacture and sell Physiomesh after obtaining knowledge and information that the product was defective and unreasonably unsafe. Defendants were aware of the probable consequences of implantation of the dangerous and defective Physiomesh, including the risk of failure and serious injury, such as suffered by Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla. Defendants willfully and deliberately failed to avoid those consequences, and in doing so, Defendants acted with conscious indifference, indifference to, and/or flagrant disregard of, the safety of those persons who might foreseeably have been harmed by the Physiomesh product, including Plaintiff, justifying the imposition of punitive damages. WHEREFORE, as a result of the acts and omissions and conduct of Defendants set forth herein, Plaintiff Diana Jane Picolla is entitled to recover for her personal injuries; past, present, and future medical and related expenses; past, present, and future lost wages; past, present and future loss of earning capacity; and past, present and future mental and physical pain and suffering; and Plaintiff is entitled to punitive damages in an amount sufficient to punish, penalize and deter Defendants from such conduct. Plaintiff demands trial by jury, judgment against Defendants, jointly and severally, for compensatory and punitive damages in an amount not less than $75,000, as well as costs, attorney fees, interest, or any other relief, monetary or equitable, to which she is entitled.

Case 8:17-cv-00694-RAL-AAS Document 1 Filed 03/24/17 Page 13 of 14 PageID 13 Page 14 of 14

AYLSTOCK, WITKIN, KREIS & OVERHOLTZ, PLLC

By: /s/Douglass A. Kreis Douglass A. Kreis Florida Bar No. 129704 Daniel J. Thornburgh Florida Bar No. 42661 Nathan C. Bess Florida Bar No. 51945 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] 17 East Main Street, Suite 200 Pensacola, FL 32502 Telephone: [phone] Facsimile: 850-916-7449

Todd Matthews (Pro Hac Vice application pending) Gori Julian & Associates, P.C. E-mail: [email protected] 156 North Main Street Edwardsville, IL 62025 Telephone: [phone] Facsimile: 618-659-9834 Attorneys for Plaintiff

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED © 2017 · HERNIA MESH ATTORNEY · E&OE

ATTORNEY DAVID SLEPKOW AT SLEPKOW SLEPKOW & ASSOCIATES INC., ESTABLISHED IN 1932, IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CONTENT OF THIS WEBSITE. SS &A’ S PRINCIPAL OFFICE IS LOCATED AT: 1481 WAMPANOAG TRAIL EAST PROVIDENCE RI. CLIENTS WILL BE NOT ACCEPTED IN THOSE STATES IN WHICH STATE BAR RULES DO NOT ALLOW. DAVID IS LICENSED TO PRACTICE LAW IN RHODE ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS, THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS AND THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT. DAVID SLEPKOW WAS A LONGTIME MEMBER OF THE FEDERAL COURT FIRST CIRCUIT DISTRICT OF RI. THE HIRING OF AN LICENSED ATTORNEY IS A VERY CRUCIAL DECISION FOR A CLIENT. THIS IMPORTANT DECISION SHOULD NOT BE SOLELY MADE BASED ON ADVERTISING OR ON A WEBSITE. THIS WEBSITE IS NOT INTENDED TO BE AN ADVERTISEMENT OR SOLICITATION. INFORMATION, ARTICLES, CONTENT AND OPINIONS ON THIS WEBSITE AND BLOG IS FOR GENERAL INFORMATION ONLY AND DOES NOT CONSTITUTE LEGAL ADVICE OR SOLICITATION OF LEGAL SERVICES. INFORMATION FROM THIS SITE OR IT’S TRANSMISSION IS NOT INTENDED TO CREATE AN ATTORNEY CLIENT RELATIONSHIP. THE RECEIPT OF SUCH HERNIA MESH INFORMATION DOES NOT CONSTITUTE, AN ATTORNEY-CLIENT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SLEPKOW SLEPKOW & ASSOCIATES INC. AND THE READER OR VISITOR. IN THE EVENT THAT ANY INFORMATION ON THIS WEBSITE DOES NOT FULLY CONFORM TO REGULATIONS, LAWS OR CASE LAW IN ANY JURISDICTION, THIS LAW FIRM WILL NOT ACCEPT SUCH CLIENTS.. IN CERTAIN STATES THIS HERNIA MESH ATTORNEY BLOG MAY BE DEEMED ATTORNEY ADVERTISING. WE AT SLEPKOW SLEPKOW ASSOCIATE’S INC..HAVE MADE EVERY EFFORT TO COMPLY WITH ALL ADVERTISING LAWS AND RULES. THE RHODE ISLAND SUPREME COURT LICENSES ALL LAWYERS AND ATTORNEYS IN THE GENERAL PRACTICE OF LAW, BUT DOES NOT LICENSE OR CERTIFY ANY LAWYER / ATTORNEY AS AN EXPERT OR SPECIALIST IN ANY FIELD OF PRACTICE. WHILE THIS FIRM MAINTAINS JOINT RESPONSIBILITY, MOST CASES OF THIS TYPE ARE REFERRED TO OTHER ATTORNEYS FOR PRINCIPLE RESPONSIBILITY

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Ethicon Physiomesh Multi-Layer Design Led To Hernia Complications, Lawsuit Alleges

A product liability lawsuit filed by an Alabama man alleges that the unique, multi-layer design used with the Ethicon Physiomesh patch caused him to experience severe complications following hernia repair, resulting in the need for additional invasive medical procedures due to adverse reactions caused by the mesh. 

In a complaint (PDF) filed this week in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Alabama against Johnson & Johnson & it’s Ethicon subsidiary, Bill Tedford indicates that the Physiomesh multi-layer design was unreasonably dangerous and defective, causing permanent injury and damages.

Unlike many other hernia repair products, Ethicon Physiomesh involves five distinct layers, which the manufacturer claimed were designed to improve performance. However, Tedford indicates that the multi-layer Physiomesh coating prevents fluid escape, which can lead to seroma formation, infections and other complications.

Last year, following a higher-than-expected number of adverse event reports involving hernia complications, an Ethicon Physiomesh recall was issued by the manufacturer. While the action was classified as a market withdrawal, the manufacturer removed all products from the market and indicates that it will no longer be sold, since they were unable to identify a solution for the problems.

Tedford indicates that an Ethicon Physiomesh Composite mesh was implanted in his body during a hernia repair in December 2013. However, due to complications and reactions to the hernia mesh, Tedford indicates that he later had to undergo additional invasive medical treatments.

“The multi-layer coating was represented and promoted by the Defendants to prevent or minimize adhesion and inflammation and to facilitate incorporation of the mesh into the body, but it did not. Instead, the multi-layer coating prevented adequate incorporation of the mesh into the body and caused or contributed to an intense inflammatory and chronic foreign body response resulting in an adverse tissue reaction including migration and damage to surrounding tissue in the form of sclerotic, granulomatous and/or fibrotic tissue, and improper healing,” Tedford states in the complaint. “These manufacturing and design defects associated with the Physiomesh were directly and proximately related to the injuries suffered by Plaintiff.”

According to the lawsuit, Tedford had a severe adverse reaction to the Physiomesh, causing serious injury and the need for additional invasive medical treatments that left him with permanent scarring and injuries.

The case joins a growing number of Ethicon Physiomesh lawsuits filed by individuals nationwide who have experienced complications following laparoscopic hernia repair in recent years.

Given the similar questions of fact and law presented in cases  pending throughout the federal court system, the U.S. Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation (JPML) decided last month to establish coordinated pretrial proceedings, centralizing all cases before U.S. District Judge Richard Story in the Northern District of Georgia to reduce duplicative discovery, avoid contradictory pretrial rulings and to serve the convenience of the parties, witnesses and the courts.

Tedford’s case will be transferred to the federal multidistrict litigation (MDL), which currently includes nearly 100 other claims. However, as hernia mesh lawyers continue to review and file additional cases in the coming weeks and months, it is expected that several thousand complaints will ultimately be included in the litigation.

The post Ethicon Physiomesh Multi-Layer Design Led To Hernia Complications, Lawsuit Alleges appeared first on AboutLawsuits.com.

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New Post has been published on Biology Dictionary

New Post has been published on https://biologydictionary.net/exoskeleton/

Exoskeleton

Exoskeleton Definition

An exoskeleton is the rigid covering found on the exterior of many animals, particularly invertebrates such as arthropods and mollusks.

Much like the internal endoskeleton of vertebrates, the exoskeleton is responsible for supporting the structure of an animal’s body.

The exoskeleton also provides protection against attack from predators and accidental damage of the soft internal organs. Furthermore, due to the waterproof qualities of the skeletal tissues, an exoskeleton acts as a barrier and protects organisms from desiccation.

In arthropods, the muscles are attached directly to the interior of the exoskeleton—unlike in vertebrate endoskeletons where the muscles are connected to the skeleton via tendons and ligaments. This direct connection means that there is a larger surface area for the muscle to attach to, allowing for powerful movement and strength. Additionally, jointed limbs, which connect the hard exterior plates, permit a wide range of available movements.

Although the bones found in endoskeletons are quite lightweight, the materials that make up the structure of exoskeletons are relatively heavy. This limits the size that an organism with an exoskeleton can grow too, which is part of the reason why insects have small body size.

The image shows insects from the Arthropoda phylum. Each one has a form of exoskeleton.

Types of Exoskeleton

The Arthropod Cuticle

The exoskeleton of animals within the phylum Arthropoda mainly consists of a coating called the cuticle. This is formed of both living and non-living layers. The living layer is a row of epithelial cells resting on a basement membrane. These cells secrete the non-living material of the cuticle.

On the exterior surface of the cuticle is a thin, waxy layer called the epicuticle. The epicuticle is formed of three layers: The inner layer is the cuticulin, which is made from lipoproteins. On top of this is a waxy layer, which acts to retain water within the cuticle and reject water from outside. This wax layer is highly fragile, so is protected by the outermost ‘cement layer’.

Section of insect integument

The interior procuticle is made primarily from chitin, a translucent, fibrous material made from modified, nitrogen-containing polysaccharides. This form of carbohydrate is similar to the cellulose found in the cell walls of plants.

The procuticle consists of two parts, the endocuticle and the exocuticle.

The interior endocuticle is a pale colored, highly flexible structure, formed of interwoven fibers of chitin and protein molecules.

Within the exocuticle, the chitin is reinforced to add hardness and strength to the exoskeleton through the process of sclerotization. This involves the crosslinking of various proteins to formsclerotin, a dark colored pigment which colors the cuticle of various insects, such as beetles, millipedes, spiders and scorpions.

Chitin is also sometimes combined with calcium carbonate in a process called biomineralization. In arthropods, biomineralization is most commonly used to harden the shells of crustaceans such as crabs, shrimp and woodlice.

The hardened components that are formed are called sclerites. These may be the plates that form the protective armor of the exoskeleton, or they may take the form of mechanical body parts such as claws, legs, joints, radula and wings.

The Shell

Animals of the Mollusca phylum typically have an exoskeleton in the form of a shell; this includes gastropod snails and whelks, bivalve mussels, oysters and clams, chitons, and nautilus cephalopods.

The shell consists mainly of calcium carbonate and proteins called conchiolins, which are secreted by the epithelial cells on a tissue of the mollusk called the mantle.

The layers of the shell generally are generally of two types: the chalky outer layer and the pearly inner layer.

The outermost layer—the periostracum—consists of organic conchiolin proteins. The middle layer is the ostracum, this is formed of tall, vertically stacked and tightly packed prisms of calcium carbonate. These two layers are secreted by a band of cells at the edge of the mantle, so that the shell grows from the outer edge.

The innermost layer is the hypostracum or nacreous layer. This consists of thin, flat platelets of aragonite, a form of calcium carbonate. The hexagonal disks are horizontally stacked in a formation similar to that of a brick wall, giving the material great strength. This iridescent layer of nacre—commonly called ‘mother of pearl’—is secreted directly from epithelial cells the mantle. Conchiolin is present within the periostracum and the nacreous layers, helping to cement the crystalline prisms together.

Molting

Due to the physical properties of the non-living exoskeleton structure, there are restraints on the possibilities of growth. Although certain creatures such as mollusks are able to grow their shells by adding material to the edges, most exoskeletons must be shed by molting and then and then regrown; this is in contrast to the living endoskeleton of most vertebrates, which grows along with the rest of the body.

In arthropods such as insects and crustaceans, the process of replacing the exoskeleton is called ecdysis, which happens in three main stages.

Firstly, as the arthropod grows, a steroidal hormone called ecdysone is released into the body, this signals the beginning of the molting process. The organism then becomes inactive while the cuticle is separated from the underlying epidermal cells in a process called apolysis.

A digestive fluid is then secreted into the space between the old cuticle and epidermis, called the exuvial space. This fluid remains inactive until the epidermis has secreted a new epicuticle. It is important to note that the new cuticle is larger than the old one, although because it is initially soft tissue, it is able to fold and wrinkle underneath the old cuticle until it is ready to be used.

The molting fluid begins to digest the soft inner layers of the old cuticle from underneath; the proteins and mineral salts are often reabsorbed into the body.

The final stage is true ecdysis, in which the organism expands its body by taking in water or air, or by greatly increasing its blood pressure. This cracks the surface of the old cuticle and the animal is able to slide out of the old exoskeleton case. By inflating, the newly free animal is able to stretch out the new cuticle and begin the process of sclerotization or biomineralization to harden the surface.

Although there are advantages to molting, such as regrowth of damaged limbs, and the ability to perform metamorphosis, it is an extremely dangerous process. Before the new exoskeleton has hardened (this can sometimes take several days), the soft interior is exposed and is extremely vulnerable to predators. Around 85% of arthropod deaths occur during the molting period! Because of the dangers, molting animals usually seek shelter during the process in an attempt to lessen their vulnerability.

The image shows a dragonfly, Libellula quadrimaculata, emerging from its the old cuticle of its exoskeleton after ecdysis.

Related Biology Terms

Endoskeleton – The internal bone structure that supports the body of many vertebrate organisms.

Hydrostatic Skeleton – The soft skeletal structure found in some invertebrates, consisting of a fluid filled cavity called a coelom.

Invertebrate – An organism within the animal kingdom that does not posses a backbone.

Quiz

1. In which way are exoskeletons similar to endoskeletons? A. They are both made from non-living materials B. They are both responsible for structural support of the body C. They are made of the same tissue materials D. They are attached to muscles in the same way

Answer to Question #1

B is correct. There are few functional similarities between endoskeletons and exoskeletons other than that they play a role in structurally supporting the body of an organism.

2. What substance is used to harden the exoskeleton through biomineralization? A. Sclerite B. Ecdysone C. Calcium Carbonate D. Chitin

Answer to Question #2

C is correct. Calcium carbonate is combined with chitin to strengthen the cuticle of shelled organisms such as crustaceans. It is also the main component of mollusk shells.

3. Which of the following is not a feature of the arthropod cuticle? A. The cement layer B. The cuticulin C. Chitin D. The nacreous layer

Answer to Question #3

D is correct. The nacreous layer is the iridescent inner part of calcium carbonate shells, also known as ‘mother of pearl’.