During cereal endosperm development, the triploid primary endosperm nucleus undergoes a series of mitotic divisions without cytokinesis, and the nuclei migrate to the periphery of the central cell, which also contains a large central vacuole (Figure 21.26, see parts A-D). As in the Arabidopsis coenocyte, each of nuclei is surrounded by radially arranged microtubules (see Figure 21.26E). Anticlinal walls form initially between adjacent nuclei, resulting in the tubelike alveolar cells, with the open end pointing toward the central vacuole (see Figure 21.26F). (...) The innermost layer of daughter cells remains alveolar in structure, and continues to divide periclinally until cellularization is complete (see Figure 21.26G and H). The most important source of starchy endosperm cells is the interior cells of the cell files that are present at the completion of endosperm cellularization (see Figure 21.26H).
"Plant Physiology and Development" int'l 6e - Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I.M., Murphy, A.
Blocking the budding of viruses – when they wrap themselves in the host cell membrane and move off to spread the infection – could be a good strategy to stop them in their tracks. Researchers interested in alphaviruses – a type that includes chikungunya and Sindbis viruses – examined the role of a protein called 6K in virus assembly and spreading. They found that it functions as a channel to let molecules pass through membranes, like has been seen in proteins of HIV and influenza. This ion channel activity was needed for the formation of vacuoles in the cell, which promote the transport of proteins to the cell lining where they are incorporated into new virus particles (these proteins in red spread throughout the membrane, left, compared to clumping in the absence of 6K, right). Interfering with 6K action could be a new way to treat infection, and nip budding in the bud.
Written by Anthony Lewis
Image from work by Zeinab Elmasri and colleagues
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Image originally published with a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
Published in PLOS Pathogens, October 2022
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For example this is the diagram you have to learn so you can learn it like-
Each cell has a protective outer layer (plasma membrane) , so the cell only lets some certain things or nutrients into the system that it needs but keeps other things out (semipermeable).
Inside the animal cell there is the digestive system (cytoplasm), in the digestive system there is the working organs (organelles).
Tiny grains floating inside the system are called (ribosome) where protein is made.
The cell also has a DNA (nucleus) that contains all are genetic information the DNA is found on structures of the cell (nucleus) called chromosomes .
The nucleus is surrounded by a layer or cover (nuclear membrane) which controls what goes in and out.
Rough ER is a series of folded protective outer layer (membrane) rough ER is always spotted with the tiny grains floating around the system (ribosomes). Together the ribosomes and rough ER make new proteins and protective layer (membranes) that the system or cell needs.
While smooth ER is the opposite, it has vehicles which are used to move things around the digestive system (transport vesicles).
Now there is another working organ which helps in packaging up things, to be transported around cells or need to leave the cell like hormones (Golgi Apparatus).
Now comes lysosomes, lysosomes are both the vitamin c and the decomposer of the cell. It kills the bacteria that invades the body and it also break downs the THINGS that cell doesn 't need.
Vacuoles are large membranous sacs used to store things. While vesicles are smaller sacs.
Mitochondria is the powerhouse that breaks down sugar (ATP) which helps the cell get energy .
yknow sometimes i feel like. if fandom was a kindergarten playground i've been spending the past several years just sitting in a corner of the sandbox by myself making my little sand sculptures just for myself to look at and maybe there are other kids who come by to take a peek every once in a while but mostly its just me and my shitty little sand sculptures
and now suddenly i've gotten a lot better at my sand sculptures and the playground is a lot smaller and so there are people who know that im good at making sand sculptures and specifically come by to my corner of the sandbox because they like my sand sculptures and sometimes those people are teachers who walk past and give a thumbs up and tell the other kids to come look and its so. new and cool and exciting but also its so different from anything i've experienced before and im not saying thats bad its just. a lot to get used to. im still not that good at playing with the other kids and i still hate having others be around to watch me make stuff because i've never had that before and i have no idea how to.. do.. a lot of this. but it's okay. i'll learn.
The organelles of the cells have been translated into human anatomy, so the nucleus is the brain, the vacuole function as the lungs, and the mitochondria is the heart since it’s the… you already know, I don’t have to say it ;)