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Abolishing the Janissary
Sultan Selim III initiated the reconstruction of the Ottoman army from scratch and addressed financial concerns. To fund the establishment of a modern army called the “Nizam-i Cedid,” the Janissary corps was disbanded, and a new system called “Irad-i Cedid” was introduced to finance these reforms.
Establishment of Irad-i Cedid
The decision was made to establish the Irad-i Cedid treasury, separate from the existing treasuries, to finance various military and state expenses. This treasury was funded through various sources, including taxes on tobacco, alcohol, and agricultural products, as well as special duties Istanbul Fun Tours.
Financial Regulations
To manage the revenues of the Irad-i Cedid treasury, a Directorate of Finance was established, and experienced officers were appointed to oversee its operations. Detailed regulations were outlined in a statute book to ensure proper management and accountability.
Sultan Selim’s Reforms
Sultan Selim III implemented extensive reforms in administration, economy, trade, politics, and diplomacy, inspired by European methods. He established permanent embassies in major European capitals and introduced a balanced foreign policy, facilitating Western influence in the Ottoman Empire.
Diplomatic Achievements
Permanent embassies in European capitals, including Paris and London, played a crucial role in enhancing Ottoman diplomacy. Notably, Ke|it Pasha served as an ambassador for an extended period, contributing to diplomatic advancements and the establishment of Western-standard diplomatic training.
Legacy of Ottoman Diplomacy
The Ottoman diplomatic efforts, bolstered by ambassadors like Ke|it Pasha and institutions such as the School of Diplomacy, paved the way for the rise of Ottoman statesmen. Ultimately, these diplomatic foundations laid the groundwork for the modern Republic of Turkey under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his associates.
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The Challenges of Organizing an Insurrection
Inadequate Organization of the Bucharest Committee
The events surrounding the attempted insurrection reveal significant challenges in organization and leadership. The rising occurred only in a few places and lacked coordination, suggesting that the Bucharest Committee was inexperienced and poorly organized. Their attempt to incite a widespread revolt failed as the majority of the population remained passive, resulting in devastating consequences.
Misguided Attempts at Provocation
The Bucharest Committee’s strategy relied on persuading a handful of villages to rise up, hoping that it would spark a general insurrection across the country. However, without proper leadership and organization, the rest of the population remained inactive, leading to their quiet slaughter. This lack of unified action and leadership proved detrimental to the success of the uprising.
Potential for Success with Proper Organization
Had the uprising been properly organized with widespread participation and effective leadership, the outcome could have been different. A well-coordinated revolt could have forced the Turks to retreat from significant portions of the country, particularly north of the Balkans. The inability to effectively combat resistance while maintaining communication lines through hostile territory would have severely weakened Turkish control Bulgaria Tours.
Panagurishti’s Involvement in the Revolt
The enthusiasm for revolt was evident in Panagurishti, where even women participated in fortification efforts. However, the amateur fortifications they constructed were inadequate for defense against significant military opposition. These makeshift defenses lacked depth and strategic placement, rendering them ineffective in repelling any serious assault.
Ineffectiveness of the Fortifications
The fortifications in Panagurishti consisted of shallow embankments and ditches, which would have provided minimal protection against enemy attacks. Even if well-constructed, the village’s accessibility from all sides would have rendered the defenses easily flanked and bypassed by enemy forces. Thus, the efforts to fortify the village, while demonstrating enthusiasm, ultimately proved futile in providing meaningful defense.
The attempted insurrection highlighted the challenges of organizing a successful revolt. Inexperienced leadership, inadequate organization, and ineffective fortifications hindered the efforts to incite widespread rebellion. While enthusiasm and willingness to resist were present, they were not enough to overcome the lack of proper planning and leadership required for a successful uprising.
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A Daunting Task in Harsh Conditions
Arduous Journey
Mr. Baring and Mr. Schuyler face a formidable challenge in their assigned task. They have embarked on their mission with earnest determination, visiting the towns and villages ravaged by the Bashi-Bazouks. Their objective is to witness firsthand the devastation wrought upon these communities and to listen directly to the accounts of the villagers. This endeavor demands extensive travel, often spanning five to fifteen hours a day, along roads that are scarcely navigable, particularly for carriages. Enduring the scorching sun, exacerbated by the oppressive August humidity, adds to the grueling nature of their journey. Mr. Baring has already fallen ill twice due to the combination of overexertion, rigorous labor, and the relentless heat. Even Mr. Schuyler, accustomed to the rigors of such expeditions from his previous travels through Turkestan, finds the conditions nearly unbearable Guided Turkey Tours .
Emotional Toll
While the physical challenges of their mission are daunting, it is the emotional toll that weighs heaviest upon them. The heart-rending cries of despair echoing through the air, the sight of grieving women and children, and the poignant encounters with homeless and starving individuals evoke profound anguish. Everywhere they turn, they are met with scenes of sorrow—widows and orphans mourning the loss of loved ones, with no shelter or sustenance to comfort them. The relentless repetition of tragic narratives, the exhaustive process of gathering and corroborating evidence, all contribute to the overwhelming burden borne by Mr. Baring and Mr. Schuyler.
Enduring Hardship
Despite the formidable challenges they face, Mr. Baring and Mr. Schuyler press on with their mission, driven by a sense of duty and a commitment to uncovering the truth. Their resilience in the face of adversity is commendable, yet the toll on their physical and emotional well-being is undeniable. The enormity of the suffering they witness, the desperation of those they encounter, leaves an indelible mark on their psyche. It is a task that few would willingly undertake, and one that they may find difficult to revisit in the future. Yet, their perseverance in the pursuit of justice and accountability serves as a testament to their unwavering dedication to their cause.
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A Daunting Task in Harsh Conditions
Arduous Journey
Mr. Baring and Mr. Schuyler face a formidable challenge in their assigned task. They have embarked on their mission with earnest determination, visiting the towns and villages ravaged by the Bashi-Bazouks. Their objective is to witness firsthand the devastation wrought upon these communities and to listen directly to the accounts of the villagers. This endeavor demands extensive travel, often spanning five to fifteen hours a day, along roads that are scarcely navigable, particularly for carriages. Enduring the scorching sun, exacerbated by the oppressive August humidity, adds to the grueling nature of their journey. Mr. Baring has already fallen ill twice due to the combination of overexertion, rigorous labor, and the relentless heat. Even Mr. Schuyler, accustomed to the rigors of such expeditions from his previous travels through Turkestan, finds the conditions nearly unbearable Guided Turkey Tours .
Emotional Toll
While the physical challenges of their mission are daunting, it is the emotional toll that weighs heaviest upon them. The heart-rending cries of despair echoing through the air, the sight of grieving women and children, and the poignant encounters with homeless and starving individuals evoke profound anguish. Everywhere they turn, they are met with scenes of sorrow—widows and orphans mourning the loss of loved ones, with no shelter or sustenance to comfort them. The relentless repetition of tragic narratives, the exhaustive process of gathering and corroborating evidence, all contribute to the overwhelming burden borne by Mr. Baring and Mr. Schuyler.
Enduring Hardship
Despite the formidable challenges they face, Mr. Baring and Mr. Schuyler press on with their mission, driven by a sense of duty and a commitment to uncovering the truth. Their resilience in the face of adversity is commendable, yet the toll on their physical and emotional well-being is undeniable. The enormity of the suffering they witness, the desperation of those they encounter, leaves an indelible mark on their psyche. It is a task that few would willingly undertake, and one that they may find difficult to revisit in the future. Yet, their perseverance in the pursuit of justice and accountability serves as a testament to their unwavering dedication to their cause.
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Bolshevization and Economic Transformations
Bolshevization and Economic Transformations (1944-1952)
Soviet Occupation and Early Economic Measures (1944-1947)
After the Soviet army occupied Bulgaria and imposed a Communist government in 1944, the bolshevization of the country swiftly commenced. The “Two Year Preparatory Plan (1947-1948)” marked the initiation of a purely Bolshevik form of economic restructuring. Two trade agreements with the USSR were signed, and by the end of 1947, nationalization efforts took place, covering banks, mines, and most industries. Private banks were merged into The Bulgarian National Bank.
Industrial Categorization and Artisan Co-operatives (1944-1948)
The industrial categorization mirrored the Soviet pattern, establishing 20 industrial “complexes.” Simultaneously, artisans were compelled to join the “Producers’ Co-operatives of Craftsmen.” The growth of these co-operatives and their members from 1944 to 1948 is shown below:
Year Members Co-operatives
1944 3,282 86
1947 27,442 713
1948 44,000 1,037
3. First Five Year Plan and Economic Shifts (1949-1952):
The First Five Year Plan, intended for 1949-1952, was “completed” in four years amid bloodshed, terror, and concentration camps. Peasants’ revolts were quelled Guided Istanbul Tour. The regime aimed to alter the correlation between industrial and rural economic productions and between the Socialist and private sectors. According to official data:
Year Industry Rural Economy
1939 27.1% 72.9%
1948 39.4% 60.6%
1952 55.9% 44.1%
In the same period, the Socialist sector’s (state and co-operative ownership) dominance expanded significantly:
Year Socialist Sector Private Sector
1939 — 100
1948 44.5% 55.5%
1952 87% 13%
Heavy industry production saw notable growth compared to light industry:
Year Heavy Industry Light Industry
1952 46.7% 53.3%
Simultaneously, there was a substantial increase in the proletarization of the workforce, with the number of workers and employees rising from 330,000 in 1948 to 970,000 in 1952.
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Bolshevization and Economic Transformations
Bolshevization and Economic Transformations (1944-1952)
Soviet Occupation and Early Economic Measures (1944-1947)
After the Soviet army occupied Bulgaria and imposed a Communist government in 1944, the bolshevization of the country swiftly commenced. The “Two Year Preparatory Plan (1947-1948)” marked the initiation of a purely Bolshevik form of economic restructuring. Two trade agreements with the USSR were signed, and by the end of 1947, nationalization efforts took place, covering banks, mines, and most industries. Private banks were merged into The Bulgarian National Bank.
Industrial Categorization and Artisan Co-operatives (1944-1948)
The industrial categorization mirrored the Soviet pattern, establishing 20 industrial “complexes.” Simultaneously, artisans were compelled to join the “Producers’ Co-operatives of Craftsmen.” The growth of these co-operatives and their members from 1944 to 1948 is shown below:
Year Members Co-operatives
1944 3,282 86
1947 27,442 713
1948 44,000 1,037
3. First Five Year Plan and Economic Shifts (1949-1952):
The First Five Year Plan, intended for 1949-1952, was “completed” in four years amid bloodshed, terror, and concentration camps. Peasants’ revolts were quelled Guided Istanbul Tour. The regime aimed to alter the correlation between industrial and rural economic productions and between the Socialist and private sectors. According to official data:
Year Industry Rural Economy
1939 27.1% 72.9%
1948 39.4% 60.6%
1952 55.9% 44.1%
In the same period, the Socialist sector’s (state and co-operative ownership) dominance expanded significantly:
Year Socialist Sector Private Sector
1939 — 100
1948 44.5% 55.5%
1952 87% 13%
Heavy industry production saw notable growth compared to light industry:
Year Heavy Industry Light Industry
1952 46.7% 53.3%
Simultaneously, there was a substantial increase in the proletarization of the workforce, with the number of workers and employees rising from 330,000 in 1948 to 970,000 in 1952.
0 notes
Photo
Bolshevization and Economic Transformations
Bolshevization and Economic Transformations (1944-1952)
Soviet Occupation and Early Economic Measures (1944-1947)
After the Soviet army occupied Bulgaria and imposed a Communist government in 1944, the bolshevization of the country swiftly commenced. The “Two Year Preparatory Plan (1947-1948)” marked the initiation of a purely Bolshevik form of economic restructuring. Two trade agreements with the USSR were signed, and by the end of 1947, nationalization efforts took place, covering banks, mines, and most industries. Private banks were merged into The Bulgarian National Bank.
Industrial Categorization and Artisan Co-operatives (1944-1948)
The industrial categorization mirrored the Soviet pattern, establishing 20 industrial “complexes.” Simultaneously, artisans were compelled to join the “Producers’ Co-operatives of Craftsmen.” The growth of these co-operatives and their members from 1944 to 1948 is shown below:
Year Members Co-operatives
1944 3,282 86
1947 27,442 713
1948 44,000 1,037
3. First Five Year Plan and Economic Shifts (1949-1952):
The First Five Year Plan, intended for 1949-1952, was “completed” in four years amid bloodshed, terror, and concentration camps. Peasants’ revolts were quelled Guided Istanbul Tour. The regime aimed to alter the correlation between industrial and rural economic productions and between the Socialist and private sectors. According to official data:
Year Industry Rural Economy
1939 27.1% 72.9%
1948 39.4% 60.6%
1952 55.9% 44.1%
In the same period, the Socialist sector’s (state and co-operative ownership) dominance expanded significantly:
Year Socialist Sector Private Sector
1939 — 100
1948 44.5% 55.5%
1952 87% 13%
Heavy industry production saw notable growth compared to light industry:
Year Heavy Industry Light Industry
1952 46.7% 53.3%
Simultaneously, there was a substantial increase in the proletarization of the workforce, with the number of workers and employees rising from 330,000 in 1948 to 970,000 in 1952.
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Embracing Nature's Challenges Rain or Shine
A Walk in the Rain
Would you walk on muddy mountain paths even if rain-loaded dark clouds hovered above, and a sharp wind rushed through you, releasing cold raindrops into your clothes? For the members of GOLDOSK, a nature sports and hobby club, the answer is a resounding yes. Last Sunday, despite the challenging weather, a group of nature enthusiasts gathered to walk through the mountains and brooks with smiles on their faces.
Soaked to the Skin, Yet Smiling
Sticky mud shackles their progress, and the vision is obscured by the downpour. Soaked to the skin and chilled to the marrow, the group, comprising kids, men, women, and seniors, moves under dark clouds, through rain and a sharp wind. They walk towards Barla, undeterred by the elements, sharing the love of nature in all seasons. The mountains they pass give way, sometimes leading the way.
Finding Beauty in the Chaos
Raindrops gather on the ground, forming tiny murky brooks, creating a symphony of plashing sounds. Yellow and white crocuses smile at them amidst the challenging conditions. Despite the mud, cold, and rain, the group looks at each other and smiles, finding beauty in the chaos. They are not deterred by the mess; instead, they consider the suffering towards the moment of purification from stress and inner dirt Guided Tours Turkey.
Sacred Moments of Learning
“Why endure this misery when you could rest in your cozy houses?” some might ask. Yet, for GOLDOSK, the suffering is sacred, leading to moments of learning and purification. Hakan Ayan, one of GOLDOSK’s founders, explains, “We met with nature, made peace with it. People started their weeks free of trouble or stress.” The experience of being in nature together breaks down invisible walls, bringing people together in ways they wouldn’t have expected.
From Two Friends to an Association
GOLDOSK’s journey began with two friends discussing how to enjoy their weekends. Small walking activities grew, and from five members, they became ten, then a hundred. Today, GOLDOSK is a thriving association where people from all walks of life come together. Besides nature trips, the organization has formed groups focused on music, skiing, painting, and photography, embracing diverse interests within the community.
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A Village Reduced to Ashes and Ashen Dreams
The Withered Roses of Klissura
This article unveils the heartbreaking saga of Klissura, a once-flourishing village that now stands as a stark testament to the ruthlessness of destruction. Tassun Bey’s merciless onslaught left behind not just ashes but shattered lives and extinguished dreams. The tragic fate of Klissura exposes the depth of the atrocities inflicted upon its innocent inhabitants.
The Desolation of a Once-Proud Village
Klissura, adorned with 700 homes and a thriving community, lay in ruins after Tassun Bey’s onslaught. Not a single house stood untouched, leaving the village in a state of desolation. The Mudir’s grim assessment revealed that a mere fifty families could contemplate the daunting task of rebuilding, with most lacking the means to even start anew.
Crippled Lives and Uncertain Futures
The aftermath of Klissura’s destruction painted a grim picture of lives left in shambles. Families, once engaged in the cultivation of roses and the artistry of manufacturing attar of roses, now found themselves bereft of homes and livelihoods. The uncertainty of the impending winter loomed large, casting shadows on the villagers’ ability to rebuild their lives Tour Bulgaria.
An Orchestrated Plunder
Tassun Bey’s marauding forces orchestrated a meticulously planned pillaging of Klissura. The village’s 130 to 150 small manufacturing units, boasting 500 copper retorts for distilling rose leaves, represented a substantial capital of £5,000. However, the invaders spared nothing, looting not just furniture and cattle but even dismantling the very roofs for tiles. In the aftermath, they combed through the ashes, scavenging for iron and nails with a chilling efficiency.
Lives Reduced to Ashes
Beyond the tangible losses, the true tragedy lies in the shattered lives of Klissura’s residents. The anguish of families, robbed of their homes, possessions, and livelihoods, resonates as a haunting echo of the once-vibrant village. The pillars of the community lay broken, and the future for the survivors remains clouded with uncertainty.
A Plea for Justice and Restoration
Klissura’s agony calls for a resounding plea for justice and restoration. The international community must bear witness to the devastation inflicted upon this village and others like it. Only through collective efforts to bring the perpetrators to justice and aid the survivors in rebuilding their lives can the echoes of Klissura’s tragedy be transformed into a resilient call for hope and renewal.
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The Troubled Landscape
Avrat-Alan and the Brigands’ Lament
The Brigands’ Bane A Suffering Class in the Shadows
As we continued our journey towards Avrat-Alan, the shadows of the Balkan Mountains embraced us, revealing a narrative of hardship that extended beyond the visible struggles of the villagers. These mountainous regions, once a haven for brigands, now echoed with their discontent. The brigands, predominantly Turks, found themselves on the brink of indigence due to the suspension of all traffic and commerce in the aftermath of the war.
These bandits, while often perceived as criminals, were now painted in a different light—one of desperation. Deprived of their customary means of subsistence, the harsh reality of their circumstances painted a pitiable picture. The cessation of travel and trade had not only silenced the roads but also left the brigands grappling with destitution. As we navigated the challenging terrain, it became apparent that the economic fallout had reached even those on the fringes of society, urging a nuanced consideration of the multifaceted impacts of conflict.
Echoes of Insurrection in a Mountain Hollow
As the sun dipped towards the horizon, we stood at the mountain’s crest, gazing upon Avrat-Alan nestled in a deep, narrow valley below. This village, one of the few south of the Balkans where an attempt at insurrection had occurred, bore the weight of a complex history. While it lacked the fortifications seen in some other places, Avrat-Alan held a distinction as the principal offender, marked by acts that strained the moral fabric of the insurrection.
The most egregious offense lay in the killing of forty Mohammedan gipsies by the insurgent youth. These gipsies, suspected of clandestine arming and potential allegiance to the Bashi-Bazouks, met a tragic fate. The suspicions, though unconfirmed Bulgaria Holidays, led to a grave decision, highlighting the intensity and paranoia that had gripped the region during the insurrection. However, a critical distinction emerged—the insurgents, despite their transgressions, refrained from harming women and children. This singular fact underscored a profound difference in conduct between the Bulgarian rebels and their Turkish counterparts.
The legacy of Avrat-Alan stood as a stark reminder of the moral complexities that emerged in the crucible of insurrection. It beckoned forth a call for reflection on the harsh choices made under the pressures of war, illuminating the contrasting values upheld by the opposing factions and, by extension, the deep-seated animosities embedded in the historical tapestry of the region.
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Incredulous and sceptical mind
Nobody can understand the cool, plausible, conscientious way in which a Turk can lie until he has seen what I have seen during this trip through Bulgaria. I have travelled a good deal, and seen something of the world; but I am willing to confess that until I came here I had no idea of the extent to which human duplicity could be carried. The honest, straight-forward way in which these people will lie to you is simply past belief, and will impose upon the most incredulous and sceptical mind.
There is an honesty, an earnestness, a seriousness in the tones of the voice, an evident knowledge of the necessities of the situation, which carries conviction with it, and convinces you that they see and know and feel about it exactly as you do. The right is so evident to their mind as well as yours, that it is impossible they should go wrong : and it is not until you see with your own eyes that they have been coolly, deliberately, and with premeditation, lying to you in the most shameless manner, that you begin to fathom the depths of their duplicity.
There are cases like the present, in which one finds out the truth; but generally you have no means of verifying what has been said to you, and of necessity you are obliged to believe. It requires a special habit and training of mind to be able to disbelieve every word which is said to you ; a habit of mind which Europeans as a rule have not got, which they cannot get, unless brought up in it from infancy, and which is rarely obtained in Europe Guided Tours Turkey.
This is why Europeans are continually deceived and overreached in their dealings with Orientals. The reader will say, perhaps, that I, the writer of these lines, seem to have learnt it pretty well already. Not at all. I know that the Mutld-Serif of Philippopolis, or any other Turk, can make me believe any number of lies, unless I have ready to hand the means of dis-proving them. I feel I am a perfect child in their hands.
I could no more have doubted Kiana Pacha and Edib Effendi when they said there was nobody killed at Batak than I could have doubted that the sun would rise to-morrow, had I not been to Batak and seen 6,000 or 7,000 bodies lying there. So far from returning the cattle to the destitute villagers, the Turks of Ustuna, hearing that we had been to Perustitza, and fearing we might make urgent representations on the subject, drove them all off to another part of the country, and sold them.
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Beneath the stones
Beneath the stones and rubbish that cover the floor to the height of several feet, are the bones and ashes of 200 women and children burnt alive between those four walls. Just beside the schoolhouse is a broad shallow pit. Here were buried a hundred bodies two weeks after the massacre. But the dogs uncovered them in part. The water flowed in, and now it lies there a horrid cesspool, with human remains floating about or lying half exposed in the mud. Nearby, on the banks of the little stream that runs through the village, is a sawmill. The wheel-pit beneath is full of dead bodies floating in the water. The banks of this stream were at one time literally covered with corpses of men and women, young girls and children, that lay there festering in the sun, and eaten by dogs.
Even Tatar Bazardjik
But the pitiful sky rained down a torrent upon them, and the little stream swelled and rose up and carried the bodies away, and strewred them far down its grassy banks, through its narrow gorges and dark defiles beneath the thick underbrush and the shady woods as far as Pestera, and even Tatar Bazardjik. forty miles distant. We entered the churchyard, but the odour here became so bad that it was almost impossible to proceed. We took a handful of tobacco, and held it to our noses while we continued our investigations Istanbul Private Tours.
The church was not a very large one, and it was surrounded by a low stone wall, enclosing a small churchyard about fifty yards wide by seventy-five long. At first we perceive nothing in particular, and the stench is so great that we scarcely care to look about us, but we see that the place is heaped up with stones and rubbish to the height of five or six feet above the level of the street, and upon inspection we discover that what appeared to be a mass of stones and rubbish is in reality an immense heap of human bodies covered over with a thin layer of stones.
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The struggle which turned into a National Revolution
The end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century were marked by a decline in the political and economical life in the Ottoman Empire. The successive wars with Russia from 1786 to 1829 led to providing the Tsar’s right of patronizing the Balkan Christians. Despite the aggressive intentions of Russia to lay its hands on the Straits – the Bosporus and the Dardanelles – and gain access to the Aegean Sea, the wars played a positive role for the development of the Bulgarian and the other Balkan national liberation movements. Now the Eastern Question was already regarded in two aspects: the struggle of the peoples enslaved by Turkey for political emancipation and the rivalry among the Great powers for partition of the territorial inheritance coming from the declining Ottoman Empire.
During the first half of the 19th century some Bulgarian refugees left their homeland to form communities in Wallachia, Bessarabia and Southern Russia, and took part in the Russian-Turkish wars. Bulgarian volunteers fought actively in the two successive Serbian uprisings initiated in 1804. Bulgar-ians participated also in the Greek national revolution of 1821-1829. In the 50’s, during the Crimean war, the young Bulgarian revolutionary George Rakovski (1821-1867) – considered as the founder of the organized national liberation movement Holidays Bulgaria – set up a Secret Society in Constantinople whose task was to urge the Bulgarian people to rise in an armed struggle in the course of the military action.
Serbian government
With permission from the Serbian government and with the help of Italian secret societies Rakovski organized the training of a regiment in Belgrade known as the First Bulgarian Legion. Among its soldiers was Vasil Levski (1837-1873) – the future great revolutionary. In 1862 this Legion took part in a clash with the Turks but after a turn in the political relations between Serbia and the Supreme Porte was disbanded. Bitterly disappointed. Rakovski came to believe that liberation should be gained by employing Bulgaria’s own national forces. Later, after the utter defeat of the biggest detachment led by Hadji Dimitar and Stefan Karadja which crossed the Danube to fight the Turks in the summer of 1868, was closed the last page of the detachment tactics’ period of the national liberation movement. The unsuccessful Second Bulgarian Legion formed in the same year proved that too. A new stage in the struggle commenced: an Internal Revolutionary Organization was set up in 1869 under the leadership of the newly established Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee. Ahead of this committee stood Liuben Karavelov (1837— 1879), Levski and Hristo Botev (1848-1876).
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THE BOSPORUS OR STRAITS OF CONSTANTINOPLE
Travellers can go up the Bosporus by the steamers that ply from the Stambul end of the G-alata Bridge. Those calling at stations on the European side fly a green, those at both shores a red and green flag. The time-tables published in the local papers give Turkish time, which varies throughout the year. The trip up to the Black Sea and back without landing takes about four hours, and this is most usually done by travellers. The fare from the bridge to the last village on the Bosporus or five villages below it is the same, viz. piastres (9d.). Overcoats and wraps should be taken, especially when the wind blows from the north. A good way to see the Bosporus and the Black Sea on a fine day from different points of view is to devote a whole day to it, and take provisions from the hoteL Start on an early steamer for Beikos; get out at Beikos and walk to the Giant’s Mountain (-| hr.), whence there is a beautiful view of the Bosporus and Black Sea.
Thence walk to the Genoese Castle at Anadoli Kavak (1-J hr.), where luncheon may be eaten; from Anadoli Kavak cross the Bosporus in a boat or caique (5 to 10 ps. = 10d. to Is. 8d.) to Buyukdereh or Therapia, which are reached in half an hour; visit either of those two villages, and proceed either by steamer back to Galata, or else drive or ride overland past the aqueducts back to Pera. This trip is recommended only to good pedestrians; a guide must be taken.
The Bosporus is one of the most picturesque places in Europe, and is a succession of woodland, hill and dale, covered with villages reaching down to the water’s edge, and dotted with white marble palaces and pretty summer residences, nestling among groves of trees, or surrounded with gardens. The beauty of the Bosporus is confined to the part between the city and Yeni Mahalleh, the last works are the Sultan’s stables, permission to see whicli can be obtained through the Embassy.
Next the square is Dolmah Baghcheh Palace,a com-bination of European and Oriental architecture, built of white marble by Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid in 1853. The principal objects of interest in the palace are the staircase, the baths of alabaster, and the Throne Room or Reception Hall, one of the most impressive halls in Europe, where H.I.M. the Sultan holds a lev6e twice a year. This was the residence of Sultan Abdul- Mejid and of his ill-fated brother Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz.
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Theodoras Metochites
With the exception of the nave and dome, therefore, the present church is entirely due to this latter, who spent his last days within its precincts, where he was buried in 1332. The chapel on the right is connected with the inner and outer narthex by a passage. The chapel is adorned with frescoes of angels and saints. The mosaics, already alluded to as illustrative of the life of Christ, are in the nartheces. Those over the main entrance represent Theodoras Metochites presenting the model of the church to Christ seated on a throne. The letters IC, XP, stand for Jesus Christ and the inscription is Xcbpa TCOV ZCOVTCOV (‘ land of the living ). The mosaics on the right and left of the door represent St. Peter and St. Paul. In the body of the church is a mosaic of the Virgin Mary in a garden, with the same inscription, Xcopa TCOV ZCOVTCOV (‘ land of the living ’); and on the south panel another representing Christ holding a gospel with the text, ‘ Come unto Me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.’
Church of the Pantocrator (Almighty), now Zeireck Jamesl; admission 5 piastres;
situated on the heights in the vicinity of the inner bridge, was built in 1120 by John Comnenus and his wife the Empress Irene, both of whom, as well as many other Byzantine emperors, lie buried in the adjoining monastery. This church formerly contained several relics, the most notable being a porphyry slab on which it is supposed Christ was laid out after being taken down from the cross, and an eikon or painting of the Virgin, by St. Luke, brought from Palestine. Only the southern of the three buildings comprising the former church is used as a mosque. The large verde antico sarcophagus to be seen in the vicinity is supposed to have contained the remains of the Empress Irene.
Church of St. John the Baptist and Monastery of Studius, now Mir Akhor Jamesl. Admission not fixed; 5 piastres for two or three persons, and 10 piastres for a party, will be liberal enough guided tours istanbul.
It stands near the Yed! Kuleh (Seven Towers) Railway Station. It was built by Studius, a Roman patrician, who came to Constantinople with Constantine the Great. The monastery attached to the church was occupied by the monks called Acoemetoi (‘ The Wakeful ’), whose days and nights were spent in continual vigils for celebration of divine service. The Akhor, or Master of the Horse to Sultan
Bayazid, converted the church into a mosque, and named it after the office he held.
MOSQUES AND MAUSOLEUMS ERECTED BY THE TURKS
Suleimanieh, or the Mosque of Suleiman ., ‘the Magnificent.’ Admission 5 piastres per head.
This place of worship, built (1550-56) by the famous Turkish architect Sinan, of materials taken from the ancient church of St. Euphemia at Chal- cedon, is one of the finest specimens of Turkish architecture extant. It is 225 feet by 205 feet in area, and its dome is 156 feet high and 86 feet in diameter. The beautiful stained glass in two of the windows near the pulpit was part of the spoil taken during the wars with the Persians; that in the other windows is a clever ancient imitation of the former by Sharhos Ibrahim, a celebrated glass – stainer. The outer court of the mosque is a rectangular arcade with a basin in the centre, and, with its four minarets, is most picturesque.
In a burial-ground adjoining the mosque are the Turbeh, or Mausoleum, of Suleiman the Great, and that of his wife, the famous Roxalana. The tombs of Suleiman the Great, Suleiman II. (died 1691), and the latter’s brother Ahmed II. (died 1695), are of uniform size and shape. Each bears an enormous turban and is surrounded by a wooden railing inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The walls are faced with beautiful tiles of the best period. The building contains also a curious wooden model of the Kaaba at Mecca, and several ancient transcriptions of the Koran. Admission 5 piastres each, a reduction being made for parties of five or more.
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The culture of the Empire
The artistic laboratory comprised the centers in these territories and thus created the culture of the Empire. Teams of architects and skillful man strayed far and wide to meet the requirements of various layers of the society. They employed to many replicas the models produced in the most prominent work-
shops in Byzantium. Rich imperial gifts or perhaps commissions of the Bulgarian aristocrats to the workshops in the Capital city or the major seats of the Empire gave splendour to life.
Veliki Preslav, the Capital city of Bulgaria in the course of less than a century, sensed most vigorously the cultural breath of Byzantium. The entire city was splendid – the buildings, the garments, the table, and the ceremonial adopted also from the Byzantine court. Even the scarce remains of the grandeur reveal the pursuit of reaching the prestige of Byzantium and leveling to it. The workshops for painted ceramics achieved acme, the stone tracery on the walls acquired the impression of chiaroscuro. Within the jewels and everyday objects we find the amalgamation of the Bulgarian vogue and taste, and the artistry and techniques of the Byzantine workshops.
The fabulous Preslav Treasure well illustrates this synthesis. The good fortune has bestowed the idea of the true level of luxury often described by the authors of the 10th century. It alone has survived the plunder – to show us the magnificent enamels and precious stones glowing on the gold of the crown and the necklace or the rest of the exquisite heavy jewels gathered in haste and buried into the ground to reach us and prove the myth. We have also the extraordinary cross – reliquary decorated with images and scenes executed in niello technique. Still another value is the pectoral icon with the image of St. Virgin Mary bulgaria tour.
The significance of all that the Bulgarian collections treasure lies in its origins and its location in territories still covered by Bulgaria as they offer good possibilities for interpretation. This refers to the numerous artifacts of every day standards as well as to the technological inventions or the huge amount of coins and seals.
The artistic heritage and the works associated with the religious practice – liturgical objects, embroideries and painted holy images add a peculiar prestige to this exhibition. Four icons present the assembly of the most remarkable works of the easel painting known from the collections of the Bulgarian museums – the ceramic icon of St. Theodore from Veliki Preslav (10th century) – the only one known of its kind, the outstanding mosaic icon of St. Virgin Mary from Thrace – a precious imperial gift (13th – 14th century), the icon of St. Virgin from Nessebar in silver facing donated by the uncle of the Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Alexander (1342), and the two – sided icon from Poganovo Monastery (14th century), incredible in its artistry. A gallery of painted images from the Church of St. Nicholas in Melnik, and wall paintings from churches and artifacts from the post-Byzantine Age shape the notion of this profound wealth and illustrate the eternal relationship between Bulgaria and Byzantium.
Here we may find the deep sense of the exhibition revealing the nature and the spirits of the Bulgarian Medieval culture.
Margarita Vaklinova
1-FLOOR MOSAIC FROM THE APSE OF ST. SOPHIA CHURCH IN SOFIA (SERDICA)
First half of the 4th century
Opus tesselatum, Opus vermiculatum; tesserae of fine-grain marble with grey and cream-coloured spots, red ferrous quartz, cream-coloured quartz, fine-grain calcareous sandstone, quartz in ochre, blue-greyish dolomite, greenish andesite, glass 2,70 x 2,60 x 0,10 m
Discovered during the archaeological research of St. Sophia Church in 1893, flout 1 m frdoze Oie Zoor. It decorated the apse of the earliest cemetery church in eastern Serdica necropolis.
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Balkantourist on the turning to Balchik
Each hotel has its own parking lot. The car repair service of Balkantourist on the turning to Balchik has good mechanics, spare parts and washing facilities. It is open from 7.00 a.m. to 8.00 p.m. Tel. 6-53-16. There is a filling station open 24 hrs near the Kosharata restaurant. Near the Casino is a rent-a-car service open from .00 a.m. to 10.00 p.m. Tel. 6-53-63.
Places of entertainment and night dubs offer pleasant and varied programmes.
Tsiganski Tabor (Gypsy Campj Night Club serves delicious dishes and excellent wines in Gypsy tents to the music of a Gypsy orchestra. Open from 9.00p.m. to 2.00 am.
Koukeri (Masked Dancers) Night Club — an original architectural building; ‘Koukeri’ dances are performed with quaint folk masks. The night club commands a marvellous view of the whole resort Open from 9.00 p.m. turkey sightseeing to 4.00 a.m.
Karakachanski Stan, The atmosphere is reminiscent of nomad Karakachan shepherd settlements in the Rhodopes. It is situated in the forest next to the Kolibite. Open from 4,00 p rh. to 2.00 a.m.
Vodenitsata — an original folk restaurant serving grilled chicken, kebabs, home-made sausages and freshly baked bread. Open from 9.00 a.m. to midnight.
Astoria Bar – a modern night club, open May to October. Interesting floor show, music and dancing. Next to Hotel Astoria. Open from 10.00 p.m to 4.00 a.m.
Caney Night Club — exotic atmosphere, Cuban cocktails, firstclass orchestra. Adjacent to Havana Hotel. Open from 4.00 p.m. to midnight.
Prifon Zarezan Restaurant. An original restaurant with a special room for wine-tasting. Bulgarian cuisine and a well- stocked bar. On the road to Varna. Open from 9.00 aan. to midnight.
Lovna Sreshta in a wood close to the Aladja Rock Monastery serves local game dishes. Orchestra. Open from 9.00 a.m, to midnight.
Picnic — a taverna in the heart of the forest near Lovna Sreshta. Grills and excellent drinks are served. Nightly programmes of folk songs and dances. Open from 5.00 p.m. to 10.00 p.m.
The Rocky Monastery
The Rocky Monastery three kilometres from Zlatni Pyas- satsi in one of the most picturesque areas of the Bulgarian Black Sea coast is an old monastery carved from the rocks, consisting of an upper and a lower part. The cells are two and a half by two metres. 1 he church is 11.70 metres long, 5 metres wide and 2 metres high. The altar has two alcoves wit mural paintings. The monastery was most probably founded in the 13th-14th century. 300 metres away are the catacombs — cells carved out of the rock and probably used as dwellings by the monks.
The Museum of the Chalcolytic Necropolis (discovered in 1975) is to be found at the entrance of the monastery. It holds old ornaments, weapons and other artefacts.
The Varna Chalcolytie Necropolis, discovered in 1972 on the western outskirts of the city, is an exceptional find which aroused wide international interest The Necropolis dates from the end of the Chalcolytie period, 3,000 B.C By the end of 1976, 81 graves had been found, 25 of them symbolic graves with no skeletons In grave Number One, was a treasure-trove of ornaments, artefacts of solid heaten gold (23.5 carats), 3 bracelets, a rectangular plate, 2 thimbles, 6 rings, 28 round plates, 6 trapezium-shaped and 4 moon-shaped plates, 160 cylindrical beads, with a total weight of 1,091 kg, copper tools, flint knives, a bone knife, 2,095 beads and various ceramic pieces. In graves Number 2,3 and 15 gold artefacts were discovered such as plates, rings and beads. Grave Number 4 contained gold bracelets, plates, rings, beads and other things with a total weight of 1,518 kg, as well as two clay vessels full of gold ornaments.
In Grave Number 43 the skeleton was found of a man about 40-50 years of age with various rich ornaments as well as several hundred gold artefacts totalling 1,516 kilograms and other copper and clay vessels and ornaments. This must have been the grave of a nobleman.
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