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New Source of Financing and Assessment of Efficiency of Nature Protection Activity
Short Communication
Environmental activities are characterized by high risk, capital intensity, non-commercial nature and longer payback period, which require improvement of information and analytical management tools. Environmental activity is a set of specialized engineering, technological, control, analytical, production, economic and management operations that form an independent process of creating the ecological utility of a commercial product. There are non-traditional for modern practice factors which have simultaneously stimulating and retarding influence: territory, assimilation potential, market of best technologies, urbanization, global natural processes, business and investment climate, social and economic globalization, public administration and internal corporate resources [1].
The main fundamental principles of environmental management are the principle of legality and civil responsibility, the principle of universal significance of created values, the principle of balancing environmental and economic interests, constant measurement and analysis, delegation of authority and responsibility, regulation and adaptive management [2]. Analysis of environmental activities of enterprises is a thematic, scientifically based economic research, which is crucial for solution of sustainable development challenges, preservation of existing potential of natural resources, balance of the economy development and introduction of innovations. The system of state economic regulation of environmental management contributes to the achievement of such level when the end results of enterprises are closely linked to the effectiveness of environmental measures and their interest in complying of environmental requirements [3]. By transition to the principles of sustainable development, therole of economic analysis in solving of issues related to the effectiveness of environmental activities in all management cycles becomes supremely important. Without detailed analysis of environmental measures, required expenses and results of their implementation, it is impossible to make appropriate management decisions.
Nowadays, the imperfect environmental protection system of the Republic of Tajikistan operates on the principle of “identification and correction” instead of “averting and prevention”. By analyzing of environmental issues, it is very important to carry out a thorough assessment of how harmonized legislative and regulatory acts are, how interconnected and mutually conditioned are the adopted strategic and program documents, and how much planned measures are provided with resources. Understanding of these issues is necessary as for minimization of irrational use of natural resources, so for reduction of negative anthropogenic impact on the environment and its preservation for future generations. Environmental issues presented in socio-economic strategies and programs are not always priorities and, as a result, are funded insufficiently (Table 1). The Committee on Environment Protection within the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan (CEP RT) is the main environmental state body, which activities are funded by both public funds and special funds. Special funds of the CEP RT are formed mainly from inputs of enterprises, institutions, residents and non-residents, physical and juridical persons, in the form of mandatory ecological payments for environmental pollution, waste disposal, use of natural resources (animals and plants, included to the Red Book and other environmental documents) and for excessive use ofnature resources. As the Figure 1 shows, despite improvement of environmental activities, the facts of violation of environmentallegislation by citizens are still taking place, leading to increase of ecological penalties and fines.
Source: Committee on environmental protection. Special Committee’s funds are used for rehabilitation of natural resources, implementation of environmental protection measures and improvement of ecological situation accordingly to the requirements of current legislation. The major portion of budget financing and alternative sources is spent for implementation of biotechnical measures. Accordingly, to the data of Figure 2, the total amount of funding for biotechnical measures over the past 10 years has increased sevenfold, indicating an improvement in the work on environmental protection and stabilization of ecological condition. Also, the funds are allocated for the construction and restoration of environmental entities. For these purposes, in 2018, 1396,2 thousand Tajik somoni were allocated from the budget, that is 1.6 times more than in 2008. In 2018, the total amount of 5524,1 thousand Tajik somoni wasallocated from special funds for construction and restoration of environmental entities, that is 64.1 times higher in comparison with 2008 (Figure 3). The central state executive body responsible for environmental policy implementation is the CEP RT. Its competence includes such important functions as environment protection, forestry development, hydrometeorology, coordination of implementation of environmental measures by ministries, departments, enterprises and institutions, observation of ecological safety standards, protection and reproduction of natural resources and coordination of activities in fulfillment of international agreements by the Republic of Tajikistan as well as establishment of collaboration with international partners in the field of environment protection (Figure 4).
Over the past 7 years, the CEP RT has undergone reorganization four times: Ministry of Nature Protection (2003), State Committee on Environment Protection and Forestry (2004), Ministry of Agriculture and Nature Protection (2006), Committee on Environment Protection (2008), which indicates the instability of its activities and undermines the executive capacity of its subdivisions leading to high turnover of highly qualified personnel. In this regard, to date, the existing structure of CEP RT remains functionally unsustainable and the potential of state environmental management cannot fully implement its assigned objectives, identified in numerous legislative, strategic and program documents. First, this is stipulated by absence of special body in the structure of the CEP RT on strategic planning, which would deal with self-assessment and assessment of existing and required capacity for both implementation of environmental activities and development of measures to strengthen this capacity. Secondly, the activities of the CEP RT structural subdivisions are focused mainly on control of implementation environmental legislation and normative acts by enterprises, which use natural resources, and to a lesser extent on organization of regular work on management and interdepartmental coordination of environmental protection, improvement and harmonization of environmental legislation, monitoring of environment condition, realization of adopted decisions, advocacy of rational nature resources use, training/retraining and certification of personnel and all involved partners, whose activities are connected to both environmental management and human impact on the environment at all levels of central and local authorities.
CEP RT established its administrative offices in regions, cities and districts all over the country to control observation of environmental legislation and regulatory requirements to assure prevention of environmental pollution. In general, the organizational structure of regional departments on environment protection is like its parent organization, the CEP RT. In accordance with the Laws of the Republic of Tajikistan “On Local Government Authorities”, “On Self-Government Bodies”, “On Nature Protection”, “On Ecological Expertise”, “On Natural Protected Areas” and etc., the key role in coordination of environmental activities and decision-making is given to the local authorities. Local authorities are empowered to coordinate environmental issues on their administrative areas, such as environment protection, use of natural resources, including allocation and withdraw of land plots, monitoring of their purposive use, water use, etc. [4].
However, in the structure of local territorial administration there is no special body responsible for the coordination of environmental measures. This is probably stipulated by the fact that environmental issues are functionally related to the activities of municipal, industrial and agricultural sectors, water and land administrations, etc. In addition, the local departments of environmental protection of the CEP, which in turn do not have the authority to coordinate the environmental activities of Khukumats’ economic sectors, are accountable to the Khukumats. This institutional structure was established in the Soviet period and did not undergo any changes, despite of market transformations and national development processes in the country. The existing duplication of functions, dual subordination between the state authorities at all levels and between specially empowered state and local authorities requires thorough analysis and streamlining of functions in environmental protection activities, and primarily at the legislative level.
Local governments, in accordance with their powers, carry out the regulation of some issues connected to land and water use by farms and population [5]. Nowadays, legislative regulation of environmental activities of local governments is not legally fixed and is limited to certain issues concerning disposal of solid waste, landscaping and gardening. The general norms of the Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan concerning powers of local authorities are reflected in the Law of the Republic of Tajikistan “On the self-government bodies of settlements and villages”. The place and role of the local authorities in addressing environmental issues are not clearly formulated in the existing legislation. These legislative acts do not contain clear differentiations of competence between central and local governments, as well as between specially authorized bodies, although formally some issues are specified. The concept of powers/functions of local self-government is completely absent in environmental legislation and, consequently, the competence and place of local authorities in solving of environmental issues are not defined. Thus, the interaction of local and central authorities is the most important condition for ensuring the effectiveness of environmental management in general [5]. Today, one of the most important tasks in the reform of local self-government is to develop the effective interaction mechanism.
The system of environmental management and regulation in Tajikistan operated based on laws and regulations developed inthe former Soviet Union. To date, a relatively well-developed national environmental legislation has been created. However, the current legislation has certain weaknesses, and namely:
a) it is somewhat declarative, due to the lack of mechanisms and resources for the implementation of the citizens’ rights on favorable environmental conditions
b) its clauses are not sufficiently interconnected; and mechanisms of monitoring the effectiveness of its implementation are not developed
c) the mechanisms of its clauses interrelation with other regulatory documents of economic sectors are not worked out, and the functions and responsibilities of ministries and departments to solve environmental problems and issues of nature resources use are not clearly defined.
The existing regulatory framework requires a review as well as inclusion of executable requirements; it should clearly reflect the mechanisms of implementation of main clauses of adopted legislation. In the current legislation of the Republic of Tajikistan, the environmental protection activity is defined as “the activity of state authorities represented by the Government and specially empowered state bodies, local authorities, public and other non-profit associations, juridical and physical persons intended on conservation and rehabilitation of environment, rational use and reproduction of natural resources, prevention of negative impact on the environment caused by economic or other activities”.
The national environmental legislation is based on the principle of two-level system of legal regulation of relations in environmental sphere, including state legislation and corresponding regulatory acts, along with the acts adopted at the local level. At the same time, the legislative acts do not quite clearly define the powers of the bodies responsible for environmental policy implementation; also, these acts are not sufficiently coordinated with each other and often are duplicated. Insufficiency and often the lack of financial resources as well as low level of qualification of personnel does not allow carrying out the assigned functions at all levels of state and local regulation of environmental issues. Tajikistan is a party of 9 International Environmental Conventions and two related Protocols; currently, 5 National Action Plans are developed and implemented in order to fulfill the correspondent commitments of the country. This was stipulated by active integration of the country into international politics, the need to preserve unique ecosystems and resources, stability of species habitats, conservation of biodiversity etc. Success in achieving of adequate results depends undoubtedly on development of mechanisms for international and interdepartmental interaction, attracting significant financial and economic material resources, as well as the availability and stable growth of highly qualified personnel.
The effectiveness of implementation Conventions by the RepublicRepublic of Tajikistan depends largely on creation of appropriate conditions, development of institutional capacity and interagency cooperation. Coordination functions on implementation of these Conventions are assigned to the leading persons of CEP RT, who are responsible for supervision of relevant activities and corresponding sectoral subdivisions. The formerly established centers for direct cooperation with Secretariats of Conventions on realization of National Action Plans (programs, strategies etc.) and fulfillment of country obligations accordingly to Conventions’ requirements, are now abrogated. At the same time, the development of international environmental policy and implementation of corresponding strategies require improvement of management structure of CEP RT. The basic strategic document on national development is “National Development Strategy of the Republic of Tajikistan for the period until 2030” where the following clauses are specified: (Goal 7): “Achievement of environmental sustainability” and (Task 9): “Inclusion of sustainable development principles to the national strategies and programs for prevention of natural resources loss.” Tajikistan is one of Central Asian countries having relatively small area of arable land. Provision of irrigated land per capita is only 0.116 ha and 0.006 ha of irrigated arable land, including 0.09 ha of ploughlands. Lands, which are suitable for cultivation of agricultural crops, occupy only 8% of the territory. Low natural soils fertility causes significant costs for agrotechnical and reclamation works. At the same time, the current tendency of agricultural sector development and financial incentives from government sector and international organizations have helped to ensure food provision in the country through a consistent and steady growth of agricultural production, increase of income and employment of population.
In Tajikistan, the economic mechanisms for integration of environmental protection and rational nature management are based on general methods of payment for natural resources use. These include taxes on land and subsoil use, payment for services for collection, removal and disposal of waste, use of sewage system, water supply, penalty for violation of water legislation, air pollution, damages caused to forestry due to illegal felling, damage by plucking of plant resources, destruction and illegal collection of plants and hunting of animals listed in the Red Book. The main sources of environmental activities funding are:
a) Budget financing, which includes financing of the managerial office and staff, monitoring and research activities, partial funding of targeted programs on protected areas maintenance, reforestation, programs for sanitary cleaning of cities and other settlements.
b) Internal funds of enterprises, which are deducted directly from the company’s profits for the construction and rehabilitation of environmental facilities, for modernization of technological processes, as well as payment for depreciation in order to restore the fixed assets of environmental entities.
c) Ecological funds, which are formed out of payments for environmental pollution and other fines, collected both in cities and districts, are distributed as the following: 60% remain in disposal of these cities/districts, 30% are transferred to the regional fund and 10% - to the state environmental fund.
Out of all in payments to the environmental fund, which were collected in cities and districts of the republican subordination, which then should be transferred to the state environmental funds, 30% are reserved for ecological activities in the region from where these in payments are. All in payments are imposed the 10% tax, which in transferred to the state budget. In recent years, the in payments to the funds are gradually increased, which is essential factor for implementation of planned environmental activities. The main expenses from the funds include financing of costs for forest planting, land improvement, development of local action plans, ecological education etc. Inadequate transparency in allocation of these funds makes it impossible for enterprises and public to understand which activities are chosen for financing [6]. Thus, the results of deep analysis of effectiveness of environmental protection system and its financial sources, showed the necessity of revision of the entire environmental- economic policy of taxation and payments as well as finding of new sources of financing for solution of such essential issues as continuing degradation of the environment due to absence of effective economic incentives for implementation of preventive measures, compensation for environmental damage due to irrational natural resources use, and prevention of environmental pollution.
Introduction of best practices on rational nature resources use and corresponding payment for it can ensure the finding of additional financing sources for improvement of environmental measures [7]. One of such efficient technologies is payment for ecosystem services (PES). Payment for ecosystem services is the compensation paid to the “supplier” of ecosystem services by their “consumer”. Suppliers of ecosystem services are economic entities (factually, it may be any physical or juridical persons), in whose activities certain ecosystem services are “produced” or maintained at the existing level. Ecosystem services are not “produced” by man in the literal sense of the word. However, certain actions of individual people or organizations (in particular, protected areas) are aimed at preserving the ecosystems and their properties, which are necessary for production of ecosystem services. For example, taking into consideration of the country specifics, an important type of ecosystem services is to maintain high quality of fresh water in the rivers. The service providers will be land and water users whose plots are located in the upper reaches of the river; the methods they use for farming (including the extent of their consumption of fertilizers and pesticides, deforestation or, conversely, reforestation, normalized consumption and pollution of water resources, etc.) impact directly on quality and quantity of water downstream. If this quality is kept on fixed level because of certain actions of upstream land users,it is considered as provision of ecosystem services by the service providers.
Users of ecosystem services are the economic entities that benefit economically from using the service and ready to pay for it. In the legislation of the Republic of Tajikistan, an ecosystem is defined as a dynamically developing complex of plants, animals, microorganisms and their habitat, functioning as a single unit. There is no direct definition of ecosystem services in the legislation, but they are indirectly defined as the benefits that people receive from ecosystems. All ecosystem services are conditionally divided as: supplying (food, water, forest, raw materials), regulating (impact on climate, control over floods, natural disasters, quality of water resources, etc.), cultural (recreational resources, aesthetic and spiritual values of nature) and supporting services (soil formation, photosynthesis, nitrogen cycle, etc.).
Thus, payments for ecosystem services (PES) provide incentives for owners of natural resources, such as farmers and forestry owners, to manage resources in such a way as to provide ecosystem services. PES is the additional source of replenishment for ecosystem service providers, which can be used to perform their planned activities and achievement of their tasks that have a beneficial effect on improvement of both nature resources use and environmental condition. The mandatory audit is an appropriate prerequisite for use of PES funds purposively, including prevention of negligence and assurance of effectiveness of their spending. In these cases, it is advisable to conduct the audit of ecosystem providers not by audit firms or individual auditors with general competence but by the certified auditing companies, which are qualified in environmental issues. Only such auditing companies can make appropriate assessment of effectiveness and completeness of PES funds use for environmental activities and rationalization of nature resources use in frame of PES agreements. In Tajikistan, this type of audit is conducted by the CEP Environmental Audit Service within the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan. Audit of PES funds is relatively new sphere because the PES is recently introduced technology and, consequently, is not widely spread due to undeveloped normative- legal base, low awareness of the population in general and farmers about its essence etc.
In future, in the context of PES development and full-scale application, it is necessary to conduct researches intended to improvement of accounting methods and auditing of revenues from PES, to introduce the control over PES rational use, as well as elaboration and introduction of special reporting forms on PES funds use for ecosystem service providers. Annotation. This article reflects the issues of effective management of environmental protection system, condition of regulatory framework that allows development of environmental activities, analysis of funding sources, possibilities of finding new sources of environmental activities financing, which also include payments for ecosystem services. Also, the concept of environmental activitiesis clarified; non-traditional approaches and modern practice, which simultaneously have a stimulating and disabling effect on environmental activities, are identified; and fundamental management principles are defined. Organizational structure of main environmental authority is analyzed in detail, and the forms of environmental management are reviewed. The institutional framework of environmental activities development as well as advantages and disadvantages of environmental legislation are described in detail.
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Olive (Olea europaea L.) of Jerusalem in Palestine
Abstract
The olive (Olea europaea L., Oleaceae) is the most important fruit tree found before more than 6000 years, which contributes to the increase of the agricultural national product in Palestine, and therefore plays a role in increasing the Palestinian economy. Methodology, we analyzed data on environmental factors of Jerusalem (East Jerusalem), including climate and bioclimate, using the bioclimate classification for the earth of Salvador Rivas Martinez during study period 1993-2012, which we obtained from the Palestinian Meteorological Station and the same period of olive production (rainfed) from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Result and discussion, when we used a correspondence analysis (CA), observed that Jerusalem affected negatively by bioclimate factors as annual ombrothermicindex and simple continentality index during the years (1993-1997), whilst, the effect was positive for years (1997-2012), with a large proportion of the variance explained by axis F1 (96.81%), axis F2 (2.88%) and axes F1and F2 (99.100%). Furthermore, in Jerusalem, the optimum of mean monthly temperature for increased olive production is between 15-200oC, with the result of annual ombrothermic index value more than 3.5, compensated thermicity index (210/210 to 350/350), simple continentality index between (15-20). Addition to olive production favor, where the environmental areas thermomediterranean to mesomediterranean of thermotype and dry to humid of ombrotype, and Jerusalem is belonging to mesomediterranean of thermotype and dry to sub humid of ombrotype.
Introduction
Posture problems in youth is rising right under your nose. Are you a parent reading this article? Do you suffer from neck or back pain after a long day at work? Headaches maybe? Did you wake up with pain? Maybe you didn’t, but the other 65% of working population did, dose and do go thru their days in discomfort. You don’t stop eating because you are afraid of cavities? Then why do you expect the millennial to give up their smart devices? How many children do you see already in poor state of health? How many do you know personally? Just like cavities, using smart devices puts us at risk. It’s not about “What is wrong?” it’s about how are were reacting to it individually? What is the compelling reason to make a change before becoming the victim of the consequences?
Methodology
Study area
Jerusalem is a Palestinian city built by the Canaanite Arabs more than 6,000 years ago, occupied more than 18 times throughout history, and the last time by Israel in two stages, the first phase in 1948, was called West Jerusalem, and the second in 1967 (Six-Day War), was called East Jerusalem (people Palestinian area). Finally came the promise of the unjust US President Donald Trump to devote the occupation of the city and considered it the capital of Israel and not the right of the Palestinians, but in fact Jerusalem is the capital of occupied Palestine and one of the holiest cities in the world, the United Nations and the international community do not recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. East Jerusalem is considered part of the Palestinian territories and is not recognized as a Jewish state [25], it is 760 meters above sea level and 64km2 , with coordinates 31.76°N 35.25°E, the city of Jerusalem is located in the center of Palestine, which is about 1km away from the Mediterranean, about 11 km from the Dead Sea, bordered on the eastby the city of Jericho (Jordan Valley, Jordan River and Dead Sea), and on the west by the towns of Ramle and Lod (Meditrranean Sea), on the north by Ramallah and from the south Bethlehem and Hebron cities (Figure 1).
data
In this paper, both climatic and bioclimatic factors were analyzed, data were obtained from the Palestinian meteorological station (Figure 2), with analysis of the olive production data for the city of Jerusalem obtained by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) and for the same years of study for both environment factors and plant production (1993-2012) (Table 1).The analysis of climate and bioclimate factors was done using the Salvador Rivas Martinez to classification of the earth [26-30], and climate factors were consisted of mean monthly temperature (Tm), precipitation (P or ppt) and soil water reserve (R); and bioclimatic factors or variables as compensated thermicity index (It/ Itc), annual ombrothermic index (Io), simple continentality index (Ic) and water deficit (Wdf or Df). Annual ombrothermic index, Io = Pp/ Tp, where is Pp = positive precipitation and Tp = positive temperature (in this case equivalent to annual precipitation and mean annual temperature divided by 12, as all the months have an average temperature above 0; bimonthly summer ombrothermic index, Is2 = P July + August/T July + August; trimonthly summer ombrothermic index, Is3 = P June + July + August/T June + July + August; and simple continentality index (Ic) = Tmax-Tmin, Tmax = maximum temperature of the averages of the warmest month of the year, and Tmin = minimum temperature of the averages of the coldest month of the year; thermicity index, where applicable compensated thermicity index, It/Itc = (T + M + m)*10, where is T = average temperature of the months; T = mean monthly temperature; M = average of the maximum temperature of the coldest month of the year, and m= average of the minimum temperature of the coldest month of the year, and P = precipitation of the months indicated.
Yield: Kilogram/dunum; T or Tm: Mean Annual Temperature; P or ppt: Precipitation; R: Soil Water Reserve; Df or Wdf: Deficit water; Io: Annual Ombrothermic Index; Ic: Simple Continentality Index; and It/Itc: Compensated Thermicity Index; and Olive Production.
Exploratory data analysis
Further, we also used normality tests for Jarque-Bera and Shapiro-Wilk to conduct the analysis [31-34], and we applied an analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests analysis to each of the eight environmental variables as climate and bioclimate factors and olive production, four bioclimatic parameters and the three climate variables or climate factors to obtain the principal component analysis, factor loading, adjusted r-squared, standardized coefficient and regression coefficient (R2) to determine the impact of environmental variables on plant yield. Addition to, exploratory data analysis was used to determine the most related environmental variables for the olive, and the XLSTAT software program were used done. Furthermore, we can use the adjusted r-squared formula is:
where: N is the number of points in your data sample, and K is the number of independent repressors; and linear regression is a way to illustrate the relationship between two variables. The equation has the form Y= a + b X, where Y is the dependent variable, X is the independent variable, b is the slope of the line and a is the y-intercept.
A regression coefficient is the same as the slope of the linear regression equation, and the formula of the regression coefficient that is: B1 = b1 = Σ [ (xi – x) (yi – y)] / Σ [ (xi – x)2]. “y” in this equation is the mean of y and “x” is the mean of x.
Yield: Kilogram/dunum; T or Tm: Mean annual temperature; P or ppt: precipitation; R: Soil water reserve; Df or Wdf: Deficit water; Io: Annual ombrothermic index; Ic: Simple continentality index; and It/Itc: Compensated thermicity index; and olive production.
Result and Discussion
Impact of climate & bioclimate factors on olive production
Principal component analysis (PCA):After we analyzed the climate and climate factors using the Salvador Rives Martinez methodology [29,30], and applied the natural tests of Jarque - Bera and Shapiro-Wilk [31-34], and finally the XLASTAT Software program, the probability value obtained from the studied variables tends to be less than 0.05, which is traditionally acceptable. PCA is used as a in exploratory data analysis, factor loading, standard deviation, covariance, eigenvalues, eigenvectors and other values.
Eigenvectors and eigenvalue:In linear algebra, eigenvector of a linear transformation is a non-zero vector that changed only by a standard factor when that linear transformation is applied. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors using either the methods of matrices or the linear transformations [35,36]. Further, calculate of the eigenvectors and eigenvalue given by: Let M be an n × n matrix. A is there is a nontrivial solution x of Ax = λx. Where, V is an eigenvector of M, if M (v) = λv, λ is called the eigenvalue associated with v. For any eigenvectors v of M and scalar a, M × av = λav. Thus, we can always choose eigenvectors of length 1:
If M has any eigenvectors, it has n of them, and they are orthogonal to one another, thus eigenvectors can be used as a new basis for an n-dimensional vector space, and AX = λX, for some scalarscalar λ. The scalar λ is called an eigenvalue of A, and x is called the eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ.
Factor loading analysis:However, principal component analysis was used to help determine various variables, using the extract factor with eigenvalue > 1 after varimax rotation. The results of PCA, including eigenvalues with a varimax rotation and the factor loadings, are classified in (Table 2) and (Figure 3), there are three of the eigenvalues were found to be >1 (Figure 3). While the total variance for these factors are about (99.60%), and two of the eigenvalues were found to be ˃ 1 and the total variance for the two factors (F1 and F 2) are about (99.60%), as in the (Figure 4). Otherwise, we applied the coefficient of correlation between all environmental variables and factors, and the correlation coefficient is bound to the range of ± 1, the +1 value inform us that the points (xi, yi) determine a straight line with a positive slope, a value of -1 inform us that it specify a straight line with a negative inclination, while the value 0 indicates that there is no correlation of y on x or vice versa.
The factor 1 was dominated positively by the factors of precipitation (0.04), simple continentality index (0.06), and annual omrothermic index (0.09), except water deficit, compensated thermicity index, and mean monthly temperature are dominated negatively (-0.03, -0.07 and -0.03) and accounts for 96.8% of the total variance and cumulative (Figure 4). Factor 2 is a high dominated by mean monthly temperature (0.002), soil water reserve and deficit water (0.001), compensated thermicity index (0.015), while precipitation (-0.03), simple continentality index (-0.01), and annual omrothermic index (-0.03) were dominated negatively. Factor 3 is a dominated positively by soil water reserve (0.008), but with negatively impact for the rest of factors, as reported in the (Table 2).On the other hand, when we applied a correspondence analysis (CA), observed that Jerusalem affected negatively by annual ombrothermicindex and simple continentality index as the bioclimate factors and precipitation as climate factors during the years (1993-1997) because its lies in the negative y-axis (Figure 4), whereas, the effect was positive during the years of study from (1997-2012), with a large proportion of the variance explained by axis F1 (96.81%), while axis F2 (2.88%) and symmetric plot axes F1and F2 (99.60%), this is evident in (Figure 4). Otherwise, the analysis of variance (ANOVA), with a 95% confidence interval has been applied to olive yield, with the seven environmental variables (Tm or T, P or ppt, R, Df or Wdf, Io, Ic and It/Itc), explain significant differences in olive production, impact of these factors on the olive productivity. The results of the analysis for each of regression coefficient, standardized coefficient, and adjusted R² showed that there was a difference significance in this study, in case of olive productivity shows a better regression coefficient with value of mean monthly temperature and compensated thermicity index (R2 = 0.975 and 0.912), adjusted R² (R2 = 0.962 and 0.868) respectively, being closed to 1 (Figure 5 & 6), and negatively with the standard coefficient (-0. 978 and -0.955), because the histograms were negative (Figure 7 & 8); precipitation is a better linear regression or regression coefficient and adjusted R² with the values of (R2 = 0.968, 0. 952) respectively, being closed to 1 (Figure 9), and correlated positively with the standard coefficient (0.984), because the histograms is positive (Figure 10), and the rest of variables and regressions values as tabulated in the (Table 3).
Olive in jerusalem
Jerusalem known by other names in Arabic such as: Biet Al-Magdis, Al-Quds Al-Sharif, and the old city of Jerusalem was known in the city of Zeitoun. Historically, their ancestral ancestors the Jebusites were the first to build and inhabited the city inthe fifth millennium BC. Now, the most important olive growing areas in Jerusalem: Beit Hanina, Beit Safafa, Kafr Aqaba, Shuafat, Jabel Mukaber, the French Hill, Jabal Al-Musharraf, Sheikh Jarrah, Wadi Al-Joz, Old City, Sur Bahir, Silwan, and Mount of olives (East Jerusalem) (Figure 11). Mount Olive or Tur is one of the oldest Palestinian villages in Jerusalem, located east of the Old City of Jerusalem, the Mount of Olives is the highest area in Jerusalem with a height of 826 meters above sea level and other areas in West Jerusalem have been under Israeli control since 1948, although they now control all areas of East and West Jerusalem. The area of olive trees (rainfed) Palestine was 893,721 dunums, and the productivity was 92kg/dunum, while the city of Jerusalem (East Jerusalem) was area of about 11,664 dunums, production (1400ton), and productivity was about 120kg/dunum during 2007/2008 [37], while the olive productivity in Jerusalem amounted to about 100.5kg / dunum during the year 1993-2012. The main olive varieties used in the Palestinian territories are: Shamali, Jabbah, Mantelino, Nabali Baladi, Nabali Mohsen, Shami, Suri, and Rumi [8,38].
Impact of temperature on olive
The temperature has a significant impact on the production [39], physiology [11-13], biology and sustainability of plants [40-42], where the olives growth need a cold period between 400-600 hours yearly, the starting temperature of olive growth is between 11-12��C, the optimal temperature for the growth of the olive tree ranging between 18 -20°C [4,5], the formation of clusters of fruitsat 15°C, flowers bloom starting at 19°C, the fruit contract occurs at 21°C, and the ripening temperature of fruits ranges from 35- 40°C, while the best storage temperature is between 10-15°C., as reported in the (Table 4).
Conclusion
Olive has a great economic importance that affects the Palestinian society as the largest and most important crop of fruit quarry in terms of area, number and production. The olives were found in Jerusalem and Palestine from more than 6,000 years ago, and it is believed that Palestine is the world’s olive origin and were mentioned in the Quran seven times. On the other hand, when we used a correspondence analysis (CA), observed that Jerusalem affected negatively by bioclimate factors as annual ombrothermicindex and simple continentality index during the years (1993-1997), whilst, the effect was positive during the years of study from (1997-2012), with a large proportion of the variance explained by axis F1 (96.81%), while axis F2 (2.88%) and axes F1and F2 (99.100%). However, in Jerusalem, the optimum of mean monthly temperature for increased olive production is between 15-200C, precipitation more than (600mm), with the result of annual ombrothermic index value more than 3.5, compensated thermicity index (210/210 to 350/350), simple continentality index between (15-20). Addition to olive production favor, where the environmental areas thermomediterranean to mesomediterranean of thermotype and dry to humid of ombrotype, and Jerusalem is belonging to mesomediterranean of thermotype and dry to sub humid of ombrotype.
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Identification of Entrepreneurial Opportunities in Manufacturing for Bachelor Degree Holding Engineers
Abstract
Advanced technologies require less purely manual workers and proportionately more with higher education level. Bachelor’s degree holding engineers are able to fill this requirement and establish new, innovative and technologically advanced enterprises. But there is no methodology for the ‘Identification of entrepreneurial opportunity’ which is the genesis of building an innovative enterprise. This paper proposes ‘Trigger’ as a methodology to identify entrepreneurial opportunities. It describes the background literature that formed the basis for the ‘Trigger’ methodology and provides a case study where a group of senior mechanical engineering undergraduates used ‘Trigger’ to identify the opportunity for a smart water jet service workshop called ‘Pilot water jet services for Smart Manufacturing’. The paper concludes that ‘Trigger’ is a correct step in the right direction.
Keywords: Entrepreneurial opportunity identification; Elemental constituent characteristics of Entrepreneurial Opportunities; KJ method
Introduction
Manufacturing Industry is going through a paradigm shift towards advanced technologies with automation and autonomous operations. Advanced technologies require less purely manual workers and proportionately more workers with higher education level. Hicks & Srikant [1] found that in the US productivity gains caused 87 percent of manufacturing job losses between 2000 and 2010. It is in this scenario the bachelor’s degree holding engineers march out of the universities. President Obama [2] once stated that entrepreneurship means ownership and self-determination, as opposed to simply being dependent on somebody else for your livelihood and your future. Yes! The environment is conducive for the graduates to become engineering entrepreneurs. But how do these aspiring graduates can ‘Identify Entrepreneurial Opportunities’ suitable for their educational background, national condition or circumstance, and personal fulfilment? This paper proposes a systematic methodology called ‘Trigger’ for the ‘Identification of Entrepreneurial Opportunities in Manufacturing for Bachelor Degree Holding Engineers’.
Literature suggests the following in relation to answering this question Economic Development
The circular flow model of the economy represents economic activities as flows of money, goods and services, resources etc. between economic agents, such as households and firms, and the flows are in static equilibrium. In this Schumpeterian concept, economic development is defined as a ‘Spontaneous and discontinuous change in the channels of flow, a disturbance of equilibrium which forever alters and displaces the equilibrium state previously existing’ [3]. To make the circular flow and its static setting, dynamic and consistent with development, changes must take place in the flow system. These changes can be brought through innovations. Innovation may be defined as a change in existing production system to be introduced by the entrepreneur with a view to make profits and reduce costs. Accordingly, for the graduates, changes that are heavily dependent on the theoretical knowledge, must be identified and built.
Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Identifying the ‘Entrepreneurial Opportunities’ is the genesis of the innovation process. Entrepreneurial opportunities are those situations in which new goods, services, raw materials, and organizing methods can be introduced and sold at greater than their cost of production [4, 5]. If the action or system by which a result is achieved is called the ‘Means’ and the result is called an ‘End’, entrepreneurial opportunities require the discovery of new ‘means–ends’ relationships. Looking at the definitions of ‘Entrepreneurial Opportunity’ in the literature, there are several of them. For example, another definition states that Entrepreneurial Opportunity is an idea or dream that is discovered or created by an entrepreneurial entity and that is revealed through analysis over time to be potentially lucrative [6]. Davidsson [7] argues that the construct ‘Entrepreneurial Opportunity’ is confusing and suggests a fundamental re-conceptualization using the constructs External Enablers, New Venture Ideas, and Opportunity Confidence to capture the many important ideas commonly discussed under the ‘opportunity’ label. Whatever the definition is ‘Identifying Entrepreneurial Opportunities utilizing graduate level theoretical knowledge’ is a fundamental need for initiating graduate-level enterprises.
Use of Knowledge in Society
Hayek [8] argues that the economic problem requires the utilization of knowledge not given to anyone in its totality or never existed in its concentrated or integrated form. Instead it is dispersed and possessed by individuals as bits of incomplete and frequently contradicting knowledge. If ‘planning’ is the making of complex interrelated decisions, the question is how this knowledge bits are communicated to the decision maker and, is it a central person or body as in monopoly or is it several subgroups like in perfect competition. Again, scientific knowledge can be systematically given to graduates but the knowledge about particular circumstances and time, about which practically everyone has some bit that has some advantage over all others, also is needed for initiating an enterprise. Thus, scientific knowledge and knowledge external to scientific knowledge, are needed to develop an economic entity. To ensure the quality and content of undergraduate programs, they are subjected to accreditation process [9] where the attainment of ‘Program Learning Outcomes’ are ensured. Shamshina [10] enumerates the competences necessary for the bachelor-degree-holding engineer specialising in engineering industries. While a highquality scientific knowledge is fundamental, a systematic method to collect the dispersed knowledge bits is pivotal for triggering a graduate level innovation or enterprise.
Systematic Approach to Identify Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Du Preez &Louw [11] argue that enterprises should not wait for the innovation to arrive arbitrarily, but rather proactively plan for innovation. They present a combined convergent and divergent approach for managing innovation. They propose an innovation framework called the ‘Fugle model’ developed to help businesses to identify, evaluate, develop, implement and exploit new products and services more efficiently and effectively. They state that the model is centered on a generic innovation process that combines the convergent innovation front-end or funnels (identification and evaluation) with the divergent deployment and exploitation of the innovation (termed the innovation bugle). Their model consists of six stages:
a) Idea generation/identification stage
b) concept definition stage
c) concept feasibility and refinement stage
d) deployment stage
e) refinement and formalization stage
f) exploitation stage
Out of these the first two, Idea generation/identification stage and concept definition stage are very much related to the ‘Identification of Entrepreneurial Opportunities’. They outline
a) Collect, Categorize and Present Information
b) Generate and Collect Ideas
c) capture ideas and
d) idea filter as the steps for the first stage
The focus of the second stage is to transform the idea into a workable concept. A concept could be developed from different combinations of different ideas. A conceptual design method called the KJ method is very much relevant to the tasks carried out at this stage.
KJ Method for Concept Generation
KJ method, named after the Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita, establishes an orderly system from a chaos of information [12]. In this method all relevant facts and information are written on individual 4”×5” cards which are collated, shuffled, spread out and read carefully. They are then reviewed, classified, and sorted based on idea similarity, affinity and characteristics. Once the information is sorted under sub-headings, they can be combined to form conceptual designs [10]. The steps in KJ method can be
a) Agree on a topic: The topic should be broad with several facets of views
b) Collect data written on individual cards: Each member of the team collects and writes down several facts, opinions, ideas, one in each card.
c) Scrub and group ideas: Go through the cards one by one explaining the contents to the entire group and group them according to intuition.
d) Title the groups: Now give a succinct title for each group
e) Layout and establish relationships: Establish hierarchies and show the internal relationships among groups
f) Generate concept: Choose different groups and combine them to form sensible concepts meeting the requirements
Key Characteristic of Entrepreneurship
The literature in general suggest the following:
a) If, in sympathy with Schumpeterian concept of change, entrepreneurship is considered as fundamentally a gathering and application of existing resources in new ways, successful entrepreneurs are those who are able to gather and combine resources in a unique way that have four essential characteristics: they are rare, they are valuable, they are hard to copy and they are difficult to substitute.
b) Further if an invention is more important it will have a higher probability to establish an enterprise and similarly if it is more radical it will have a higher probability to establish an enterprise.
Aim
The Aim of this Research can be summarized as ‘Development of a systematic methodology for the identification of Entrepreneurial Opportunities’. This should consider the principles of Economic Development, the salient points to be covered under Entrepreneurial opportunity, and the use of knowledge in society. The resulting system can assist to easily identify opportunities that are rare, valuable, hard to copy, difficult to substitute, important and radical.
The Methodology - Trigger
A Five-step methodology called ‘Trigger’ is proposed. The first step of it is about choosing a sector in manufacturing. This step is important as this should consider the local situation, the strengths of the graduate, technological opportunities and other similar factors. The second step is aimed at collecting the bits of knowledge dispersed among various people as identified by Hayek [8]. Anything, (facts, opinions, ideas, etc.) in the opinion of the collector is relevant, should be collected and written down, one in each card. If it is a team effort each member should collect the data individually. In the next stage, the cards are taken up one by one explaining the contents to the entire team and grouped as clusters according to intuition. Further cards could be added at this stage as, gaps could be easily identified once the whole picture continues to emerge. Adequacy is an important consideration at this stage. The clusters are given succinct titles in the next step. These titles are written in cards with different color. Now the entire title under consideration is represented by these clusters of cards. If the graduate puts his knowledge components as one additional cluster, the entire knowledge available is visible and placed on the table. Now creative thinking or imagination in combining different subsets could be used to identify different entrepreneurial opportunities. A concept that meets the key characteristics identified earlier could be chosen, as the final ‘Entrepreneurial Opportunity’ chosen for further development. Figure 1 shows the methodology as a flow chart.
Entrepreneurial Opportunity Using Advanced Waterjet Cutting - Case study
In this case study the ‘Trigger’ methodology was used to identify Entrepreneurial Opportunities in waterjet cutting by a group of senior undergraduate students who will become graduates soon.
Choice of the Topic
The local area has several (literally hundreds) workshops with conventional manufacturing machines and there are practically no CNC machines, excepting few engraving machines for woodwork and laser cutting machines for plastics. The workforce in these workshops are highly skilled and the main works they handle relate to maintenance of heavy vehicles and construction work. There are few state-sponsored advanced manufacturing facilities relating to aircraft, automobile and oil and gas industries, among others. The technology of the country expands and grows in a rapid pace. Thus, there is plenty of scope for small and medium sized manufacturing companies utilizing advanced technologies. The students have concluded that it would be difficult to penetrate the market at skill-centered activities, but they have a good chance of success at advanced knowledge-centered technologies. They identified their theoretical strengths are in mathematics, geometric modelling including graphics and CAD, computer aided manufacturing, design and manufacturing, manufacturing processes and complex machine components and systems. On top of these they had skills in ICT and the training to learn new subjects. The students therefore had the opportunity to choose from the topics
a) a CNC Factory for CNC Machining
b) a CAD, CAM and Simulation Facility for CNC Code Generation
c) a Manufacturing Company for Laser Cutting of Steel and Aluminium Profiles
d) a Manufacturing Company for Waterjet Cutting of Steel and Aluminium Profiles
e) a Company for Measurement and Certification of Components for Dimensional Quality
f) Company for Wire Cutting with Electric Discharge Machining for Internal Components
g) A Factory for Steel Fabrication (Welding)
With these in the background they chose waterjet cutting as the sector for their entry
Collecting Data
The collected data in a structured format are the results of the next three steps in ‘Trigger’ methodology. These steps are
a) collecting data in cards
b) scrubbing, classifying and collecting further cards in additionally identified areas and
c) giving a title for each cluster identified during classification
Collecting data should be viewed from several different perspectives like what kinds of work could be undertaken, what kind of machines, what kind of inputs from customers, what would be the marketing strategy and the like. A rich collection of data would help identifying better entrepreneurial opportunities and the importance of this step cannot be overemphasized. When a team is engaged in the project the individually collected cards should be discussed and explained to all members. This process is called scrubbing. This process will identify cards or even groups of cards (information) that were being overlooked. Then the cards are classified into clusters where cards relating to the same topic are grouped into a cluster. In the next step after clustering, a heading or a succinct title for each cluster is assigned. For the water jet cutting more than 80 cards were identified by the group. They are classified into 21 clusters as shown in Figure 2. These 21 clusters collectively represent the various knowledge components distributed among the stakeholders.
Concepts of Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Concepts of entrepreneurial opportunities are generated by triggering the graduates’ interests and inclinations using their theoretical knowledge and the knowledge components in Figure 2. Some concepts are described in the following sub-sections.
High-Tech Water Jet for Medical Inserts
Medical inserts like the hip joints made in tough materials like Titanium require high precision manufacturing with fine surface finishes. The surfaces of these components are patched free-form surfaces. Thus, computer modelling of the object is fundamental. All the knowledge components the graduate had from his undergraduate study as identified earlier are necessary here. From the knowledge components identified, general information (1), machine components (2) and process sequence (4) help to understand the process. Cluster number (5) helps to choose the type of waterjet, cluster number (11) helps to choose the required power rating, cluster number (9) helps to define the required machine, clusters (10) and (12) help to choose the materials handled and hence the pressure range, cluster (13) helps the choice of a machine and cluster (14) will tell whether there is a company that has the machine, cluster (17) helps to identify the CAD/CAM software and cluster (20) helps to identify what kind of company could be formulated. Combining these with their theoretical knowledge strengths the students proposed this company. The resulting company is described in Table 1.
Discussion and Conclusion
The research is aimed at developing a mechanism to integrate the scientific and technical knowledge the bachelor’s degree holding engineer has, with the bits of knowledge spread in the society as identified by Hayek [8]. ‘Trigger’ is developed as a systematic procedure to integrate these two kinds of knowledge and use the combined chunks of knowledge as a stimulus for generating entrepreneurial ideas. To a great extent it follows the Schumpeterian idea of change as a result of recombining the resources.
The identified entrepreneurial opportunities in Table 1 come from different perspectives. The first one, High-Tech Water Jet for Medical Inserts, is reliant on the quality and capability of the machine and the theoretical or technical competence of the graduate. The idea was triggered by the combination of several of the knowledge chunks identified in the collected data. The second one, Precision water jet profiles, is for providing an advanced technology for the customers. The main advantage the graduate entrepreneur has is his theoretical knowledge. The third one, water jet for stone sculptures, is an innovative idea in using an advanced technology for a new application combining art with advanced theoretical and computer tools. It depends heavily on the theoretical, creative, and business competence of the graduate and the quality and capability of the machine.
The experience suggests that ‘Trigger’ is a thought-provoking procedure and can lead to the Identification of Entrepreneurial Opportunities in a systematic and easier way.
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Directional Dispersion Effect of Thin and Short Fibers on Performance of High Ductile Mortar
Abstract
The plain cement mortar is weak in flexural and ductility behavior. If the thin and short synthetic fibers, like Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers, are uniformly distributed and well coated with mortar, it enhances the both flexural and ductility. The directional dispersion effect of PVA fibers was investigated on the flexural and deflection behaviors of High Ductile Mortar (HDM). In the first attempt, 2-dimensional dispersion effect was studied with the HDM beams of different depths. And in the second, the 50mm beam mold was cast with 1 layer (50 mm depth of layer) and 5 layers (10 mm depth of each layer). The flexural strength of 12 mm deep beams increased by about 35% than that from 48mm beams, with an increase of deflection by about 800%. The flexural strength of five layers casting (10mm each) beams was increased by about 36% than from the one-layer (50 mm) casting, with an increase in the deflection by about 410%. The analytical model satisfied the experimental results. The 2-dimensional dispersed fibers enhanced the both flexural and deflection behaviors of HDM. It is recommended not to use the fibers of length not less than the thickness of the casting layer. This result was used for the manufacture of lightweight composite panels.
Keywords: High Ductile Mortar (HDM); Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers; 2-Dimensional Dispersion; 3-Dimensional Dispersion; Flexural Strength; Deflection Behavior
Introduction
The concrete is considered as one of the most difficult materials to handle, because it is the mixture of different sizes materials like water, cement and aggregates [1]. Different modern types of concretes like self-compacting concrete (SCC) [2-4] and ultra-high strength concretes [5] have already been developed. Steel fiber is the discrete, short length of steel with its aspect ratio (ratio of the length to diameter) ranging from 20 to 100 [6]. Steel Fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) is also considered as the prestigious construction material with its high flexural strength and ductility. The various research and developments have been carried out with FRC materials since the early 1960’s for its wide range of practical applications [7]. American Concrete Institute (ACI) had listed the 5 methods of adding fibre materials while mixing SFRC [8].
It has, however, indicated that the fibres should be added to a fluid mix, either as the last stage of mixing or added to the mixer with the aggregates [9]. The effect of mixing procedure on the properties of fibre reinforced concrete, especially with the feeding sequence of ingredients into the mixer, was studied by Bartos and Hoy [10-12]. They claimed that ordinary commercially available concrete mixers may not give the better quality of mixed FRC [11,12]. Japan Concrete Institute [13] has recommended that the fiber materials to be fed after the completion of the mixing of the plain concrete.
Synthetic fibres are considered as an inexpensive reinforcement, with no corrosion, for concrete. Victor Li. first introduced Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) in early 1990s [14-16]. Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibres were developed by the time. PVA fibres have high tenacity, high modulus, low elongation, light weight, good resistance against chemicals (alkaline), good adhesion to cement matrix [17]. Gong and Zhang found that using high performance fibre-reinforced cementitious composite (HPFRCC) materials, instead of normal concrete in RC frames, increased the ultimate load, ultimate deflection, ductility ratio, and plastic hinge characteristics of the frames Pang et al. [18] determined the effect of the fly ash on the ultimate tensile stress and strain of the high ductility cementitious composites [19]. Li and Xu proposed the bending properties and toughness evaluation method of high toughness cementitious composites [20]. The impact resistances of high-performance fiber reinforced composites were studied by Wang et al. [21] and Zhang et al. [22].
Various attempts were made by Gyawali to enhance the flexural and deflection behavior of High Ductile Mortar (HDM) with Poly-Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers. These include dispersion method of PVA fibers and mixing in mortar [23], development of High Ductile Mortar mixing method [24], effect of sizes and contents of fibers [25] and different types of sand and mixing process [26]. The author hereby has studied the directional dispersion effect of thin and short PVA fibers on flexural strength and deflection of HDM.
Objective
The main aim is to investigate the directional dispersion effect of thin and short Poly-Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers on flexural and deflection behavior of High Ductile Mortar (HDM). Its specific objective is to determine the effect of PVA fibers on flexural strength and deflection when they are made to disperse in 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional directions with the following two casting methods.
a) Casting the beam specimens of varying depth
b) Casting the same depth of beam with one layer of casting and 5 layers of casting
Type and characteristics of PVA fiber Mix proportion Mixing procedure Specimens casting and test methods Test specimens of varying depth Varying depth of casting layer
Materials and Procedure
Since the target of this experimental work was to check the effect of directional dispersion of thin and short fibers, type of PVA fiber and its content, mix proportion of HDM as well as mixing procedure were kept the same.
REC15 type PVA fiber was used in all series of experimental works. Its characteristics are given in Table 1.
The water cement ratio (W/C) was 30% with unit cement content (C) of 1000 kg/m3 and unit content of water (W) of 300 kg/m3. The content of PVA fiber was 2% by volume. 1.0% of super plasticizer (by weight of cement) and 0.3% of viscosity agent (by weight of water) were used to enhance the workability and viscosity of mortar.
The HDM mixing method was used in all series of experimental work. Mixing was carried out in a mortar mixer with 6 liters per each batch. The viscosity agent was pre-mixed with cement in bucket by small scoop. The dry mixing of sand and cement was carried out for 30 seconds. Then, the first part of the water was poured into the mixer and wet mixing was carried out for 2 minutes. When pouring the water, the mixer was run with low speed. After finishing the charging of water, the mixing was done with high speed for one minute. Then, PVA fibers were charged into the mixer while mixing on low speed. After finishing the charging of fibers, the mixing was done in high speed for one minute. Finally, the remaining water was added and then mixing was done for further one minute.
The workability and the viscosity of the HDM mortar were found same in all cases. PVA fibers were uniformly distributed, without any clumps, and firmly coated by the mortar. The average table flow value of each HDM was more than 150 mm. It was the workability requirement of the fresh HDM for the easiness of casting. Three specimens of small beams were produced in all series of experiments. The specimens were initially air cured for 24 hours, followed by the water tank curing until the test day.
Three wooden (plywood) beam molds of each depth of 6mm, 12mm, 20mm, 30mm and 48mm were prepared in these series of tests. The length (400mm) and width (100mm) were same. All specimens were cast with the same quality of the HDM mixed at the same time under the similar environmental conditions. The air curing and water curing of all specimens were carried out under the similar conditions.
The standard steel molds with sizes of 400mm × 100mm × 50mm (length × width × depth) were used in this method of casting. Casting of fiber mortar into the mold was done in 1 layer and 5 layers, as shown in Figure 1. In 1-layer casting method, the whole mold was cast at once. It was done for maintaining the directional dispersion of fibers in 3-dimensions. In 5 layers casting method, the depth of each cast layer was 10 mm to make the dispersion of fibers in 2-dimensions. It is due to the depth of each layer (10mm) being less than the length of fiber (12mm). Three specimens were produced from each casting method. The curing method was the same to those cast with varying depth specimens.
Since this investigation was for the comparative study, the bending tests were done in 7 days age. It was done with 4-point loading method, shown in Figure 2. Gauges were set at the exact center of the depth, on both sides, to measure the deflection. The average values of the deflection from the both sides were taken for the study.
Results on test specimens of varying depth Results on varying depth of casting layer
Test Results
The data of load vs. deflection values were recorded from the bending test of each specimen. The flexural stress was calculated from the recorded load. The trend of flexural stress-deflection relationship was studied in general. The maximum flexural stress was considered as the flexural strength and the deflection value at this point as deflection.
Average seven days flexural stress-deflection relationships of test specimens with a depth of 6 mm, 12 mm, 20mm, 30mm and 48mm are shown in Figure 3. The 12 mm beam showed more deflection before the failure. It was due to 2-dimensional distribution of PVA fibers. It is assumed that, 2-dimensional distribution of PVA fibers increased the probability of having the direction of fibers in 1- dimensional distribution (longitudinal direction of the beam) to resist the flexural stress as well as strengthening the bridging work to resist the widening of micro cracks. The results obtained for the case of 20 mm and 30 mm specimens were in-between. Moreover, numbers of micro-cracks before the failure were more on the thin beam than in the thicker one. However, the result was different with 6 mm beam which gave the least flexural strength. Moreover, the flexural stress was fluctuating at every point of loading. It is assumed that the depth of the beam was not sufficient with respect to the length of the fiber (12mm) used. Figure 4 gives the 7 days flexural strength of the varying depth of beams.
The flexural strength of the 12mm beam was the maximum (7.34MPa) followed by those of 20 mm (7.23 MPa), 30 mm (7.12MPa) and 48 mm beams (5.45MPa). The increase in flexural strength of the 12mm beam was about 35% than that of the 48mm beam. The trend of decreasing of flexural strength while increasing the depth from 12mm to 30mm was slight, but steep from 30 mm to 48 mm. The overall trend of decrease in flexural strength, while increasing the depth, was found in the tentative parabolic form. With exception, the flexural strength of 6 mm beam was the minimum (5.36MPa).
Figure 5 shows the deflection values of beams, with varying depth, on their maximum flexural strength capacity. The deflection value of 12mm beam was the maximum (8.99mm), following by those of 20mm (4.77mm), 30mm (2.64mm) and 48mm (0.98mm) beams. The deflection of 12mm beam was about 800% more than that of the 48 mm beam. Unlike the flexural strength, the decrease of deflection of 12 mm to 20 mm beams was steeper than in the range of 20mm to 30mm beams. The decrease trend from 30 mm to 48 mm beams was slight. The deflection value of 6 mm beam was 4.2mm, less than that of the 12mm beams. The trend of the deflection curve was linear with the thickness up to 12mm (equal to the length of fiber). It was tentative exponential decay with the thickness from 12mm upward.
Figure 6 gives the relationship of stress-deflection curve on casting methods of 1 layer and 5 layers of the same depth of 50 mm beam mold. The flexural strength of one-layer casting (50mm) was only 4.76 MPa with its deflection value of 1.05mm. The flexural strength of 5 layers casing (10mm) was 7.41MPa with its deflection value of 4.2mm. Increase in flexural strength and deflection of 5 layers casting was about 36% and 410 % respectively than one-layer casting. The fibers of 12mm length were assumed to be distributed randomly (3-dimensions) in 1-layer casting and in 2-dimensions in 5 layers.
Analysis and Discussions
The analytical model was developed for the both flexural strength and deflection in a variation of the thickness of the specimens. Equation 1 gives the empirical formula for the relation of the flexural strength with thickness.
Here, fb is the flexural strength in MPa and t is the thickness of beam in mm. The constant k_1depends upon the type and the percentage of fiber. The constants k2 and k3 depend upon the direction orientation of fibers and act as the reduction factor of thickness to match with the exact value of fb in MPa.
Equation 2 gives the empirical formula for the relation of the deflection with thickness.
Here, δ, t and Φ are the deflection, thickness of the beam and length of fiber in mm, respectively. In equation 2(a), the constant c1 depends upon the type and percentage of fiber and acts as the reduction factor for the thickness. In equation (2b), c2 depends upon the type and percentage of fiber. The constants c3 and c4 are for the direction orientation and the reduction factor of thickness.
Figure 7 compares the analytical and the experimental data. Values of k1, k2 and k3 are 7.4, 0.45 and 0.43 respectively. The analytical result satisfactorily fits with the experimental results. However, the experimental data of 6 mm beam are less than the analytical result. Furthermore, experimental data from the second series experiment are also plotted in the graph. The data for onelayer casting (50 mm) fits well with the analytical result. However, the data of 5 layers casting (10mm each) are more than that of analytical result and a little bit more than that of the 12mm beam.
The comparison of analytical model and experimental results for the deflection is shown in Figure 8. The values of c1, c2, c3 and c4 are 0.74, 64, 0.5 and 0.55 respectively. The analytical curve fits to the experimental data satisfactorily. The test data of 50mm beam (one-layer casting), from the second series experiment, perfectly fit with the analytical curve. However, the test data of 5 layers casting (10mm each) are far below than that of analytical results. With the observation of bending tests followed by the study of the pattern of stress-strain curve, flexural strength and deflection; the author hereby recommends that the thickness of any HDM specimen should not be less than the length of PVA fiber for HDM.
From this study, it was understood that the directional dispersion effect of small and thin PVA fibers is vitally important for enhancing the both flexural and deflection behaviors of HDM. Two-dimensional distribution of PVA fibers enhances the both flexural and deflection behavior of HDM. In practical application, it is possible to make the 2-dimension dispersion of short and thin fibers by producing the high flowable HDM. It may give its characteristics of self-flowing, self-compacting and self-leveling while pouring to any mold or formwork from any fixed position.
Conclusion
The directional dispersion effect of short and thin PVA fibers (φ40μm × 12 mm) was experimentally studied by taking two major parameters of specimen casting methods. In the first series of experiment, the flexural strength of 12mm beam was the maximum (7.34 MPa) with its respective deflection value of 8.90 mm. The flexural strength of 48mm beam was 5.45 MPa with the deflection value of 0.98 mm. The increase in flexural strength of the 12mm beam was about 35% than that of the 48mm beam. The increase in deflection of the12mm beam was about 800% than that of the 48 mm beam. The results of 20mm and 30mm beams were in the middle range for the both flexural strength and deflection values. In contrast, the flexural strength of 6mm beam was the minimum (5.36MPa). The deflection value (4.71mm) was also well below than that of the 12mm beam.
The flexural strength of 5 layers casting (10mm each) beams was more (7.41 MPa) than one-layer (50mm) casting (4.76MPa) beams. The deflection value of the first (4.2mm) was also more than that of second (1.05mm). The increase in flexural strength and deflection were 36% and 410% respectively. The empirical model was developed for the both flexural strength and deflection values. The analytical curve fitted well with the experimental data for the beam thickness of not less than the length of the fiber. However, the problem was noted with the less thickness. The author recommends that it is better to produce the specimens not thinner than the length of fiber for HDM.
It concludes that the two-dimensional distribution of PVA fibers enhances the both flexural and deflection behavior of HDM. In practical application, it was made possible by producing the high flowable HDM.
Acknowledgement
The author carried out this research work in Maeda Corporation, Tokyo, Japan. All required expenditure required for this research work was funded by Maeda Corporation. The author would like to give sincere thanks to Dr. Matabee K. Maeda for his continued support during this research work. Sincere thanks also go to all counterparts who helped during the experimental work.
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Investigation of Temperature Effects on Microstructure of Pure Titanium - Juniper Publishers
Abstract
In this study, pure titanium powders were sintered by sealing in quartz tubes vacuumed from oxygen for 4 hours at 3 different temperatures by using powder metallurgy method. Temperature values selected for sintering of samples are 900oC, 1000oC and 1150oC respectively. SEM, EDX, XRD tests were performed for microstructure analysis of samples produced by powder metallurgy, and finally, the effects of sintering temperature on the microstructure of pure titanium were determined by measuring the Vickers hardness values of the samples. According to the results obtained, the sintering temperature has great effects on the microstructure of pure titanium. In addition, the Vickers value measured for 900 0C as 263 kgf/mm2, for 1000oC as 382 kgf/mm2 and finally 528 kgf/m m2 for 1150oC temperature sintering.
Keywords:Pure-Ti; Sintering Temperatures; Microstructure; Powder Metallurgy
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Introduction
Titanium is the most widely used implant of recent years, because of its protective effect on between bond and tissue during implantation, also triggering the formation of calcium ions around it and accelerating bone formation [1]. Titanium also experiences an allotropic α-phase to β-phase transformation at a temperature of 882oC, which causes the most important mechanical properties of the metal to be changed, particularly the flexibility. There is no guarantee that the metal undergoing allotropic transformation will remain in a continuous β-phase structure [2]. When the metal descends to room temperature, all of the weak β-phase structures can be transformed into α-phase structures. This critical transformation can be vital for these metals used in human tissues and organs [3]. Also, the microstructure of titanium implants is known to have important effects on the most important parameters of the implant, such as corrosion. Even though titanium allotropic conversion begins at 882oC, a stable microstructure at this temperature may not be possible. Therefore, it is very important to discover a temperature and homogeneous microstructure in titanium metal and a temperature value in which the elevated B phase region coexists. In this case, it has been found suitable for the same metal types to increase the small sintering temperature by starting the experiment at the temperature value where allotropic conversion starts. Therefore, in this study, starting from the allotropic transformation temperature value, three pure titanium were produced at 900oC, 1000oC and 1150oC temperatures respectively. Analyses of the samples were compared by XRD, SEM, Micro Hardness measurements. In order to produce pure titanium metals, powder metallurgy has been the chosen method for the production, considering its success in producing metals with high melting temperatures.
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Experimental Methods
The powders of the metals used in this study were obtained from the Nanography company. Characteristic properties of these powders are Titanium (Ti) Purity: 99.9%, Size: 100 mesh, density 4,507 g/cm3. The metal powders pressed in an 11mm diameter pellet die for 30 minutes at 20Mpa pressure. The pressed sample sintered in oxygen vacuumed environment. The sintering process was carried out at 900oC, 1000oC and 1150oC for 4 hours respectively. sintered sample is given in Figure 1.
X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) was performed for phase analysis of Pure Titanium and Cobalt alloys produced by powder metallurgy. Measurements were made using XRD-6100 Shimadzu, XRD scanning Range (100-900), Cu X-ray tube target, voltage = 40.0 (kV) and current = 30.0 (mA) measurement details used. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to compare the sample (P/M) particle size, pore diameters, and oxide content. The surface morphology of the samples was observed using an area emission scanning electron microscope (FEI XL30 Sirion). Hardness measurements, (Micro Hardness Tester FM-310e) was used to obtain the hardness values of the surface of the samples. Hardness values were taken under 100g load for 10 sec. Hardness values were taken from 5 different points on the surface of the sample. The average of 5 Vickers values was accepted as the final hardness value.
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Results and Discussion
SEM And EDX Analysis
Figure 2 shows XRD pattern of pure titanium diffractometers sintered at 900°C, 1000°C, 1150°C respectively. Accordingly, targeted Titanium diffractometers were achieved at all 3 temperatures. The XRD cards of the titanium structures obtained were found to be 00,044,1294> Ti for all 3 samples. It is seen that α-Ti (hcp) structures are transformed to β-Ti (bcc) structures with increasing sintering temperature. Finally, the final β-Ti phases are formed at 1150°C.
Figure 3 (f) An example is provided for EDX analysis of samples. As can be seen in the picture, there is a dominant Titanium peak, and there is no oxidation in samples. SEM images of pure titanium metals produced at three different temperature values (900°C, 1000°C and 1150°C) have a more stable surface morphology. Furthermore, the pore structures seen in this sample appear to be more uniform and closer to spherical geometry. It is seen that pore diameters and grain size values decrease as sintering temperature increases.
Micro Hardness Tester
The Vickers hardness tester is the test engine that least damages the sample among the material tests. Similar properties have been reported between the Vickers hardness and mechanical properties of a material. Hardness measurements, Vickers hardness Notch machine (Micro Hardness Tester FM-310e) was used to obtain the hardness values of the surface of the samples. The hardness values were taken under a load of 100g for a 10-sec holding time. Hardness values were taken from 5 different points on the surface of the sample. The average of 5 Vickers values was accepted as the final hardness value. The average hardness values were given at Table 1.
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Conclusion
Pure titanium powders are produced by powder metallurgy at different temperatures. As the sintering temperature increased, the β-phase region increased in the samples, particle sizes and pore diameters decreased and finally micro hardness values increased. Homogeneous microstructure was obtained in all three samples.
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Digital Literacy and its Use by Teacher Trainees at Secondary Level in Odisha
Abstract
Digital devices and applications have been used in schools and teacher education institutes across the globe for teaching learning. All the prospective teachers must be digitally savvy to utilize it in school for teaching, assessment, management and professional development. This study intended to find out the level of digital literacy and its uses among teacher trainees at secondary level. Descriptive research method was followed for undertaking this study. Survey was conducted on sample of 170 trainees selected randomly from teacher education institutes under Utkal University, Odisha, India. Self-developed questionnaire based on different aspects of digital devices and applications such as skills of trainees in digital technology, use of digital technology and applications by trainees for learning and teaching etc. was used at tool. Collected data were subjected to frequency and percentage analysis and accordingly conclusions were drawn. The study found that majority of trainees can change screen brightness and contrast, minimize, maximize and move window screen, use search command to locate a file and download and install applications, more than 50% of trainees do not know learning management system, virtual worlds, podcasts and web design applications, around 70% of trainees are aware about storage of video in camera, manage junk mail and update username and password and less than 50% of trainees knew about voice typing and cyber security, majority of trainees use group email and WhatsApp for academic work and only 20% of trainees use digital devices for using PPT in class, create digital learning materials, provide feedback to students. It is suggested that teacher education institutes must be equipped with digital devices and applications useful for teaching learning and professional development. Further, teacher educator must encourage and motivate trainees by integrated ICT in regular course work and across the subjects so that trainees can develop skills of using it for teaching, learning and assessment in schools.
Keywords:Digital Literacy; Digital Devices; Applications; Teacher Trainees; ICT
Conceptualization of the Problem
Digital literacy is the engine of the modern civilization and the driving force of the information age. Today the meaning of literacy is not just limited to the ability to read and write. It extends to an effective application of all those activities in which literacy is normally assumed. The modern meaning has been expanded to include the ability to use language, numbers, images, computers, and other basic means to understand, communicate, gain useful knowledge, solve mathematical problems and use the dominant symbol systems of a culture. In this context, digital literacy has become much more than the ability to handle computers, just like traditional literacy and numeracy, it comprises a set of basic skills which include the use and production of digital media, information processing and retrieval, participation in social networks for creation and sharing of knowledge, and a wide range of professional computing skills. The UNESCO [1] Expert Meeting in Paris, defined “literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society”.
Different committees and commissions in India have strongly recommended for the use of ICT and digital technology in the education system for increasing its efficiency. The National Policy on Education (1986) stressed the need to employ educational technology to improve the quality of education. The significant role that ICT can play in school education has also been highlighted in the National Curriculum Framework [2]. Use of ICT for quality improvement also figures in Government of India’s flagship program on education, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). Again, ICT has figured comprehensively in the norms of schooling recommended by the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), in its report on Universal Secondary Education, in [3]. For improvement of digital literacy among students, Government of India framed a National Policy on Information and Communication Technology in School Education in [4].The initiative of ICT Policy in School Education is inspired by the tremendous potential of ICT for enhancing outreach and improving quality of education.
Teacher education needs to orient and sensitize the teacher to distinguish between critically useful, developmentally appropriate and the detrimental use of ICT. For seeing the importance of digital technology in today’s world many commissions and committees in India emphasized on the proper infrastructure in teacher education institutions and their appropriate use in teaching learning process as well as for administration purposes. National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (NCFTE) [5] reported that ICT can be imaginatively drawn upon for professional development and academic support of the preservice and in-service teachers. Justice Verma Commission [6] recommended that ICT may be utilized and materials developed in a decentralized and contextualized mode with participation of teachers and teacher educators for more sustained benefits. ICT should not be perceived as an ‘efficiency mechanism’ for large scale outreach only, as that assumes a ‘broadcast’ model in which the creation/control is central and the peripheries are seen as ‘consumers/users’. The real power of using ICTs is to decentralize the curricular and pedagogical processes that are currently existent.
The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) [7] regulation laid down guidelines about availability of ICT infrastructure in teacher training institutions. In accordance with regulation, several specialized courses are being offered in B.Ed. programme to enhance professional capacities of a student- teacher such as courses on language and communication, drama and art, self-development and ICT. A course on critical understanding of ICT is being offered as an important curricular resource. It also gives emphasis on ICT Resource Centre in the teacher educating institute and also there should be ICT facilities with hardware and software including computers, internet, TV, Camera, ICT equipment like ROT (Receive Only Terminal), SIT (Satellite Interlinking Terminal) etc. ICT must be integrated in different theories & practicum papers to develop skills and competency of prospective teachers. As per the recommendations of the NCTE regulation [7], all states have revised their curriculum, incorporated ICT in the teaching learning process and provided ICT facilities in the teacher training institute with the intention to develop digital skills of trainees.
In teacher education, digital literacy involves the development of knowledge and skills for using general computer applications, learning specific software programs and internet tools confidently and competently. It comprises several aspects, including technological awareness, technical vocabulary, components of computer, concepts of data and programs, ways of computing, working on files, documents and pictures, working with multimedia, evaluating resources and communicating with others.
Rationale of the Study
Digitalization has influenced all the aspects of human life including teaching learning. It has great potential for quality improvement of education in schools. Hence, teachers of present era should not only have content knowledge, but also, they should have pedagogical as well as technological knowledge so that they can transact knowledge to students in an advanced way. Teacher can use the digital technology for preparation, delivery and follow up of the lesson in school. Teacher can also use technology for assessment purpose as like digital portfolio. Hence, the prospective teacher must possess digital literacy for effectively dealing with digital native students in future. In this context, the Government of India and states has provided ICT facilities to all teacher training institutions. The curriculum of all teacher education courses has been revised and ICT components are included as per the NCTE regulation [7]. Hence, it is high time to examine the level of digital literacy of teacher trainees so that suitable intervention can be planed.
Recently many researchers have taken interest on the uses of digital devices and applications in teacher education. Sethy & Mohalik [8] found that all the schools have computer and projector in smart classroom, but all teachers are not using smart classroom every day for teaching learning. Barik & Mohalik [9] reported that 95% of teachers are aware about internet and effectively using for teaching and professional development and agreed that digital technology is helpful for effective teaching. Devim [10] found that B.Ed trainees’ had moderate level of ICT literacy and the urban B.Ed trainees mean scores was higher than the rural. Armistead [11] found that digital technology has significant potential to enhance learning opportunity which a student needs to be successful. Li lan [12] found that use of digital technology is significantly correlated with self-efficacy, perceived computer skill and technology access and support for both teachers and students. Oloyede [13] stated that there was no significant difference in the level of ICT literacy between male and female student teachers. Sivasankar [14] reveals that the higher secondary school teachers from English medium, teachers from urban areas and matriculation higher secondary school teachers are better in their ICT awareness than their counter parts. Tabasum, et al. [15] found that majority of the students are average in computer literacy level. Wang [16] found that digital natives misleading and disconnect student’s inside and outside classroom technology experience. Hatlevik, et al. [17] found that digital competency among secondary students is due to different factors like classroom teaching methods, home environment, language integration and academic aspirations etc. Beena & Mathur [18] reported that male M.Ed. students possess significantly higher awareness of ICT in education than female M.Ed. students and the teacher trainees of both the Government and self-financed M.Ed. Colleges have similar kind of awareness of use of ICT in education. Pattee [19] found that digital technology helps a teacher for being an effective technology user, a lifelong learner in advanced ways, make effective technological pedagogical content knowledge as well as an effective mentor and facilitator.
The above discussion reveals that attempt has been made by the researcher to examine the use of digital technology and devices in schools, colleges and teacher education institutes by the teachers and students. Mostly researches were conducted in school setting. Few studies were conducted on digital literacy of teacher trainees and teacher educators. In this context, study on digital literacy of teacher trainees is relevant.
Objectives
a) To study the digital literacy of trainee teachers at secondary level.
b) To study the extent of using digital devices for learning and teaching during internship by trainee teachers
Methodology
Survey method was used for studying the level of digital literacy and use among trainee teachers. The sample for the present study was selected randomly which consists of 170 trainees of secondary teacher training institutes of Utkal University, Odisha, India. Out of 170 trainees, 50 are from Nalini Devi Womens College of Teacher Education, 50 from Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneswar and 70 from Radhanath Institute of Advance Studies in Education. Self-developed questionnaire based on different aspects of digital literacy and its uses such as skills and competency of using digital devices, general awareness of digital devices and applications and using digital devices for teaching learning. The validity of tools was ensured by taking expert comments. The collected data was coded numerically and entered in MS Excel for analysis. All the items were analyzed in terms of frequency and percentage and accordingly interpretation was made.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
The collected data are analyzed as per the objectives of the study by using frequency and percentage and qualitative descriptions. The detailed analysis and interpretation are presented in following pages.
The Table 1 indicates that above 90% of trainees can change screen brightness and contrast, minimize, maximize and move window screen, use search command to locate a file and download and install applications. Further, above 50% of trainees can scan disks for viruses, write files onto USB drive, record and edit digital sound and video and only 35.8% of trainees can create and update web pages. It can be said that trainees have working knowledge of digital devices except creating and updating web pages.
The Table 2 indicates that more than 70% of trainees have good knowledge of word processing, social networking, video sharing, web search engines and dictionary application. Further, more that 40% of trainees have good knowledge of spreadsheet, presentation and photo sharing applications. The table also reveals that more than 50% of trainees do not know learning management system, virtual worlds, podcasts and web design applications.
The Table 3 indicates that more than 90% of trainees are aware about the device needed to install on computer for video conference and use of Bluetooth. Further, more than 70% of trainees are aware about storage of video in camera, manage junk mail and update username and password. The table also points out that less than 50% of trainees knew about voice typing and cyber security.
The Table 4 indicates that more that 90% of trainees use group email and whatsapp for academic work. Further, around 50% of trainees have created audio/video teaching learning materials. The table also reveals that few trainees have done online course and attended webinars.
The Table 5 reveals more than 50% of trainees always use digital devices for collecting resources and preparing lesson plan during internship in teaching. Further, more than 20% of trainees use digital devices for using PPT in class, create digital learning materials, provide feedback to students, and use online library and share notes online during internship.
Major Findings
a) Majority of trainees can change screen brightness and contrast, minimize, maximize and move window screen, use search command to locate a file and download and install applications. Further, around 50% of trainees cannot scan disks for viruses, write files onto USB drive, record and edit digital sound and video and only 35.8% of trainees can create and update web pages.
b) More than 70% of trainees have good knowledge of word processing, social networking, video sharing, web search engines and dictionary application. More than 50% of trainees do not know learning management system, virtual worlds, podcasts and web design applications.
c) More than 70% of trainees are aware about storage of video in camera, manage junk mail and update username and password and less than 50% of trainees knew about voice typing and cyber security.
d) Majority of trainees use group email and WhatsApp for academic work. Around 50% of trainees have created audio/video teaching learning materials. Few trainees have done online course and attended webinars.
e) More than 50% of trainees always use digital devices for collecting resources and preparing lesson plan during internship in teaching. Only 20% of trainees use digital devices for using PPT in class, create digital learning materials, provide feedback to students, and use online library and share notes online during internship.
Educational Implications
a) Teacher educators must play great role in motivating and engaging trainees in digital devices for teaching and learning. Hence, training of all teacher educators must be organized so that they can use digital devices in teaching and assessing. They must demonstrate the uses of different digital devices in the field of school education and teacher education.
b) Present day education focuses on collaboration in learning. The digital medium can be utilized for collaboration among students and teacher educators. Hence different social networking apps like Whatsapp, Twitter, Blog, Facebook etc can be utilized for sharing and commenting in educational problems and issues so that trainee will develop skills and competencies in using ICT for learning and teaching
c) Most important skills for effective use of digital devices and services are safe practices. All the trainees must be oriented and educated in safe practices in using online services like onlinebanking, email, face book etc. They should be oriented especially in creating and changing passwords.
d) Internship is one of the significant elements of teacher training programme which provides the scope for utilizing digital devices and apps. Trainees must be motivated to use digital devices and apps for effective teaching and learning. The teacher education institute must make it compulsory for trainees to deliver specific number of lessons by using ICT. Trainees can use ICT for preparing lesson plan, preparing new teaching resources, video and audio clips which can be utilized during teaching.
e) ICT can be utilized for providing open educational resources to trainees and teacher educators. The trainees must be familiar with MOOC, NROER, e-pathasala and other online resources / libraries created by national and international agencies. Trainees must utilize these open educational resources for learning and teaching.
f) ICT must be integrated in pre-service teacher education programmes. It must not be taught as separate paper but must be given emphasis in all the papers. Because trainees must realize and understand the scope of using ICT in each paper. The potential of ICT must be utilized in learning of each perspective, pedagogy and field engagement courses.
g) All teacher education institutes must be equipped with appropriate digital devices and applications. Trainees must be given opportunities in working with computers; smart classes etc. in order to be develop their practical skills. Trainees must be oriented in the process of using smart class, smart boards and educational applications.
h) The future students will be digital native. They have different ways of learning and thinking. They want to use digital devices for everything in life from learning to education. For them, learning is fun making with subjects. Hence, prospective teachers must be equipped with all skills and competencies of using digital devices and applications.
Conclusion
The use of digital devises and application in the field of school and teacher education has been greatly emphasized by different committees and commissions at national and international level. The NCTE regulation 2014 has recommended that ICT must be integrated in all teacher education programmes, which can enable teacher trainees for using it in classroom teaching. On the other hand, the Government of India has launched the programmes such as Digital India, e-pathshala, NROER, SWAYAM etc. for facilitating the use of ICT in education sector. This study indicates that teacher training institutes are equipped with digital devices and majority of trainees have smart phone with data plan. Trainees must be encouraged and supported for using ICT in the different phases of the course. The study also indicates that trainees are using digital devices during internship in teaching programme for planning lesson, preparing teaching learning materials and for presenting the lesson. The principals of all teacher training institutes must promote the use of digital devices in admission, administration, internship and assessment of trainees. Further, mobile and mobile based learning applications must be used in teacher education programmes both by trainees and teacher educators.
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Is Your Child at Risk? - Juniper publishers
Journal of Trends in Technical and Scientific Research
Keywords
Posture problems, Back pain, Cavities, Whispering, Giggling, Slouching, Beautifully, Slender
Opinion
Posture problems in youth is rising right under your nose. Are you a parent reading this article? Do you suffer from neck or back pain after a long day at work? Headaches maybe? Did you wake up with pain? Maybe you didn’t, but the other 65% of working population did, dose and do go thru their days in discomfort. You don’t stop eating because you are afraid of cavities? Then why do you expect the millennial to give up their smart devices? How many children do you see already in poor state of health? How many do you know personally? Just like cavities, using smart devices puts us at risk. It’s not about “What is wrong?” it’s about how are were reacting to it individually? What is the compelling reason to make a change before becoming the victim of the consequences?
Let me share a personal story
It was a hot summer day, their laughter echoed like angles singing, Tina, Melisa and Helen, the 14 year old splashing around the pool as the parents Barbecued and talked sports. Tom was watching his Tina, with a smile of joy, with his cousins. As a doctor her knew the long hours was rewarded by watching his family joyful. The girls stood outside the pool, whispering and giggling, he noticed Tina is standing a bit crooked, and is really slouching compared to his cousins. It caught his eye, the smile change slowing to an objective analysis. He watched Tina walk to grab towels from the other side of the garden when he knew something is off, she IS crooked. What happened? He calls his wife, Fay, a protective Jewish Mom, who despite work, social life, and community involvement monitored her children like mother bear. He turns to her with fearful concern, “What is going on with Tina?” she proudly replies, “I know she is growing up so beautifully, she reminds me of my self at her age, tall and slender.” as she flaunts her hair with a smile. he looks at her, “what the hell are you talking about, look at her pelvis, her back, it’s not right!”
Fay, wide eyed looks at her, then at him.” “Tina, sweetheart come here, come here!” Uninterestedly and dutifully, she walks over with her head and neck forward, long wavy hair covering her slender thin body, and rounded shoulders. Fay watches her daughter’s hips, posture, and remembers how she is more introverted with others, how her baby is all crooked in her bikini. This can’t be happening, Fay a doctor herself, immediately dose a posture analysis, “Stand up straight” she checks her Head, ears, shoulder blades, Back, Pelvis, Hip, Knees. “Turn around honey”. John stands there and looks at her daughter and wife, a unsettling feeling of concern wraps around his stomach. Tina’s head is 6” over her shoulders. Her right scapula is notably rotated back, and her right pelvis is 3” higher than the left side. “Mom, are you done. Girls are waiting for me?” Fay and John look at each other in concern, Fay, eagerly says; “Honey we’ll make an appointment with Romina she is her god-daughter. She will take care of her”.
I greet my best friend Fay and Tina, (as smiled and thought, love these girls, last time they visited my Clinic was when she was 4 years old. Then she fell of the kitchen counter). They usually see the local Chiropractor, only urgent matters start with me. I know there is a problem! We walk to the exam room. Fay shares her concern about Tina’s posture and how in past year she has been laying on her beanie bag, creating movies, playing games and doing her homework on her laptop. She has been complaining of neck and back pain, with frequent headaches, that Tylenol helps. “We have been telling her to standup straight, and she slouches” maybe she listens to you. Last week at BBQ party we noticed that her pelvis is off, can you check her?”
I proceed with my examination, which was obvious for Forward head position (phase II) and pelvis unleveling, postural distortion. X-rays, will determine if her posture problems are skeletal or muscular, and to what ratio of physiological involvement of muscles to bone effect. I sat in my office, looking at Tina’s X-rays, shocked! Tears pour down, how do I share this with Fay? From the mirror window in my office I can see them giggling over her nail polish. My voice is muted holding back the tears as I draw lines, angles, and measurements on her X-rays, wiping off the unstoppable tears. OMG, OMG, why did this happen? This is my baby girl! This is my god daughter.
I put myself together as I wear my white coat, maybe the coat can give me strength. I pull myself together, pull my hair back, clear my throat, stand up, and force a smile. I call them to the consultation room, prior to showing the X-rays I start my explanation. “Recently within the past few years there has been a notable rise in number of young adolescents and adults suffering from neck, upper back and lower back pains.” In past we blamed heavy back packs, now we have an added insult to the growing fragile bodies of our children. The side effects of smart devices integration in children’s lives. In fact; Kaiser family research states “An average 8-18 year old spends about 7.5hrs a day on some form of smart device.”
You see, there are 3 common factors that contribute to poor posture are:
a) Muscular problem
b) Structural problem
c) Functional problem
• Muscular Problems are poor muscle balance, usually due to developed bad habits. Such as beanie bags, text neck, playing games on hand held devices. In adults it could be poor ergonomics at work or when driving. Usually most noticed with stiffness, and muscle aches (Figure 1).
• Structural problems are deeper issues. Specifically speaking is changes to the skeletal system. This generically is known as “Scoliosis”. An X-ray can identify the source being born with (congenital) or if it is developed later in life (structural).
• Functional Problems are when the skeletal system and the muscular systems changes to the point that the joints have lost their integrity and are not moving in correct aligned synchronicity. This will lead to early wear and tears at joint lets and create bones spurs, fusions and early arthritis. (Reported cases of bone spurs in teenagers are becoming a health concern.)
I show Tina what normal X-ray looks like from front and from side. Explaining the importance of correct alignment. I open the view to reveal her X-rays. Fay gasps, tears weld in her eyes, as she knows what this means. Tina’s jaw drops, in a nervous joke she says “Ahhhh, That’s not straight!”. Based on your X-rays, it is evident that you do not have a congenital problem. You have a condition called “Adult Onset Idiopathic Scoliosis”. I believe your spine is reacting to the abnormal postures over the past few years and it caught up with you on your growth spurs. Your body has changed due to the pressures loads as result of poor postural habits and demands. This is noted in many ergonomic evaluations on adults. In past children were more physically active and did not spend their time looking down other than homework for few hours a day. That has changed dramatically with phones, tablets, laptops now your body is reacting to these changes.
For every 1” that your head is off its center, there is between 10-15 lb. of pressure loading on your spine. kepangi&white
Radiology Report
X-Ray Impression
Reverse C/S curve of-12’/45’
Early onset of posterior bone spur at C7
Scoliosis is simple from T8-L5
Right Concave Scoliosis
Pelvis rotation (Compensatory change due to Right Rotation of Vertebral bodies from L3- T9 creates a Complex Scoliosis
DDX
Reverse C/S curve= Alordosis
Compensatory Rotary Scoliosis (Thoraco-Lumbar spine)
Non-Congenital Scoliosis
Discussion
Range of Scoliosis
phase I- 5’-2’degrees:
Conservative method.
Care: Physical Rehabilitation & Chiropractic Alignment. Duration of care 3-6 months, full spine X-ray every 3-6 months.
Phase II 25’-45’ degrees
Milwaukee/ Other custom made brace and Surgical Candidate.
Care: Aggressive Physical Rehabilitation & Chiropractic Alignment. Duration of care 6-24 months full spine X-ray every 3-6 months.
phase III >45’ degrees:
Care: Surgery
From that day on we put Tina on strict program of chiropractic, physical therapy, yoga therapy, hard bracing and 9 months later $30,000.00 + in out of pocket expense we were able to make some changes to her spine. Tina has to wear a customized brace for many years on daily basis. As a doctor we look at anatomical changes and fail to share with parents the psychological ramifications. A growing child needs to develop his/her personality in society, matters such as confidence, ambition, social interaction are building blocks of a child’s emotional IQ. If a child feels he/she is different, has an imperfection, or has to hide a secret, to avoid being ridiculed or bullied. That child’s future is at risk (Figures 2-5).
As parents it’s important to check your children posture. To raise our future presidents, senators, world leaders not insecure, introverts, make wrong decision as result of poor self image. A simple posture analysis and prevention will change your child’s future, Just Maybe! see posture score at www. BAX-U.com
Conclusion
I share this story, as a godmother, doctor and advocate for better posture better health. My effort is to help adults have better work ergonomic, but prevention starts from home. Find out what your posture Risk Score is and how together we can Stand taller, Feel Better and Look Amazing. This personal story is to impress upon you the importance of educating today’s parents for healthier children. Together we can make a difference in more ways than you can imagine. I speak out because “I Care”. Join our team to educate, empower and promote better health thru early detection and prevention.
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Effect of Counseling based on Sexual Self-Concept on the Sexual Health of Women in Reproductive Age
BackgroundSexual health is fundamental to the physical and emotional health and the basis of well-being of individuals, couples and families. Sexual health is considered as a measure to determine the level of social and economic development in countries. The World Health Organization states that, having sexual health, pleasurable sexual life and sexual awareness are among human rights, and considers counseling as an important method to enter into discussion on sexuality of people. Individuals' sexual self-concept is an important factor that affects sexual health. It refers to understanding and conception of individuals from their sexuality. Therefore, counseling based on sexual self-concept can be effective in maintaining and improving sexual health. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of counseling based on sexual self-concept on Women's sexual health.MethodThis interventional study was conducted on 59 married women between 15 to 44 years old attending the health centers of Gorgon city, Iran who had met the Inclusion criteria. Data collection tools were the Female Sexual Function Index and sexual self-concept questionnaires. After compilation of the questionnaires by the two (intervention and control) groups, individual counseling based on sexual self-concept was conducted in the intervention group. A month after the intervention, the two groups were asked to complete the questionnaires once more. Then data analysis, with nonparametric, Spearman and MannWhitney tests, was performed through SPSS software version 16.ResultThe results showed that, women in the intervention group had the total score of sexual function (P<0.0001), and the mean score in dimensions of sexual desire (P=0.02), sexual excitement (P=0.01) and orgasm (P<0.0001) showed statistically significant increase compared to before the intervention (counseling). But, in the control group no statistically significant differences in any of the dimensions was observed.ConclusionWomen's sexual function is considered as one of the key components of sexual health. The results of this study showed that, sexual counseling based on sexual self-concept is affective in maintaining and improving sexual health of women, therefore, it can be referred to as one of the effective methods in sexual counseling.Go toIntroductionThe World Health Organization [1] has defined sexual health as a status of physical, mental, emotional, psychological and social health in sexuality, and stated that, having and maintaining sexual health must be considered as human's sexual right. Sexual health is an important component of well-being and health [2]. Lack of sexual health in addition to affecting interpersonal relationship, leads to undesired consequences such as inability to make a healthy and satisfactory sexual relation with sexual partner, which itself leads to undesired physical, mental and social consequences in couples. Thus, sexual health plays a crucial role in the quality of marital life [3-5]. Lack of sexual health in women leads to psychological disorders such as; depression, anxiety, mood swings, sexual fear and sexual dysfunction [6]. One of the key components of people's sexual health is sexual function, which unfortunately, is the most common sexual health problem in people. Studies have shown that, sexual function at any level is able to affects women's sexual satisfaction, and causes degrees of stress in them [7]. On the other hand, women's sexual function is influenced by physical and psychological factors. Among the common factors that can threaten sexual function is the understanding or conception of individuals from their sexuality. For instance, women who think they are not attractive for their husbands are at the risk of developing sexual disorder twice the time than women who think the opposite [8,9]. Understanding and conception of people from their sexuality is called sexual self-concept, and this psychological factor consists of positive and negative dimensions [10] Positive sexual self-concept regulates behaviors and excitements in such way that, women with positive self-concept experience positive sexual behaviors and excitements.On the other hand, women with negative self-concept have less successful interpersonal relationships and fewer sexual experiences and sexual satisfaction, and usually have a negative and conservative attitude towards sexual issues. These women (with negative sexual self-concept) when asked to predict their future sexual plan, they show a great deal of uncertainty and pessimism [11,12]. Accordingly, assessing sexual selfconcept as a tool to determine the status of sexual interaction with others (interpersonal) and intra-personal status can have a crucial role in people's sexual health, so in people, who need sexual intervention, the counselor or therapist can use their sexual self-concept as a tool to examine their sexual health[13] . Furthermore, whereas sexual self-concept, due to the past personal experiences, is different from person to person and because of the need to preserve the principle of confidentiality[14],self-concept as a method of sexual counseling, is effective in maintaining or improving the sexual health in individuals.Go toMaterials and MethodsThis interventional study was conducted on 59 married 15 to 44 years old women attending health centers of Gorgan city, Iran to receive healthcare services. Conventional sampling method was used to select the women who were later randomly divided into two groups (intervention and control groups). The inclusion criteria of the study were; willingness to participate in the study, having at least primary school education and higher, having passed over 6 month since last birth delivery, having no history of adverse event (such as death of loved ones or accidents causing disability) in the last three months, having no chronic mental/ physical disease such as vaginal infection, having no severe marital conflicts, not being pregnant or plan to get pregnant during the study, not taking anti-anxiety and antidepressants medication, not being drug addict(husband and wife), and not being pregnant for more than 5 times. The exclusion criteria were; immigration of samples during the study, couples' decision to separate from each other, occurrence of adverse event (death of loved ones or accident leading to disabilities, etc.), and diagnosis of acute or chronic sexual problems due to physical or mental reasons during the study.Data collection tools included a form and two questionnaires, the demographic form and, the Persian Female Sexual Function Index questionnaire, consisted of 19 questions with 5 options. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed in the study of Mohammadi et al. with Cronbach's Alpha of 0.70 and above in which, the sexual function in six dimensions including sexual desire (first and second question with scores of 1 to 5), sexual excitement (3 to 6 questions), vaginal lubricant (7 to 10 questions), orgasm (11 to 13 questions), sexual satisfaction ( 14 to 16 questions with the scores 1-5) and sexual pain (17 to 19 questions with the scores 1-5) were assessed (14) and the Persian multidimensional questionnaire on self-concept with 18 domains and 78 items. The validity and reliability of the Persian multidimensional questionnaire on self-concept with Cronbach's Alpha of 0.88 and reliability index greater than 0.70 was also confirmed in the study of Ziaei et al. [15]. In this study, from the 23 questions asked, five dimensions of sexual self-concept including sexual fear (Q: 5-9-13- 18-23), sexual anxiety (Q: 1-610-14-19), sexual self-efficacy (Q: 2-7-15-20), sexual satisfaction (Q: 4-8-12-17-22) and sexual self-esteem (Q: 3-11-16-21) a) were used [15].All participants completed the demographic questionnaire form. Women who were in the intervention group underwent individual counseling based on sexual self-concept. Short-term counseling session with eclectic approach was conducted for 45 minutes by a midwifery consultant under the supervision of a clinical psychologist with MSc degree. The consultation process with sexual self-concept approach, based on scores in each area of sexual function was started and continued with non-verbal observation (behavioral and emotional) and verbal review during the interview process. The progress was assessed and sexual function based on scores obtained from the questionnaire was evaluated. Positive and negative points were identified through sexual self-concept questionnaire, which put forward two conditions:a. The existing condition was approved, andb. Problems and concerns were identified so they could be responded to, and if the problems were too many, they were prioritized [16]. If further session was required or the participant asked for further session, a time for the next meeting was set up. One month after the consultation, women in both groups were called again to complete the questionnaire once more. All subjects signed consent from to participate in the study. The participants had right to withdraw from the study if their wished to do so.Ethical considerationsi. Written consent was obtained from the entire participant before taking part in this studyii. All participants had right to withdraw from the study at any time if they wished to do so.iii. The confidentiality principal was preserved by; keeping all the participants' information confidential, using anonymous questionnaire and a code was given to each questionnaire instead of name, and conducting the counseling individually and giving the researchers' telephone number to the participants to ask any question any time.iv. This study had benefits for the sample as it was included the consultation on sexual functioning in order to improve it.v. The results of the project were effective in promoting sexual health of the participants.vi. An informed consent was obtained from the spouses of the participants in intervention group before the taking part in counseling sessions'.vii. The counselors and the participants belonged to same gender. Statistical analysis was carried out on the data collected from 59 participants. Demographic data was analyzed using parametric test and non-parametric test (Wilkekson, Spearman and Mann-Whitney) according to the research objectives through SPSS software version 16.Go toResultsThe results of Chi-square test and t-test showed no statistically significant differences between the intervention and control groups in terms of demographic variables such as age, occupation and education of the spouses, mode of birth delivery, contraception way, breastfeeding condition, and parental style. Mann-Whitney test showed no statistically significant difference between the two groups in terms of average female sexual function scores before the intervention in various fields. The result of Wilkerson showed a statistically significant increase in the overall score of sexual function in the intervention group (P<0.0001) compared to before the intervention, and also a significant increase was observed in the dimensions of; sexual desire (P<0.02), sexual excitement (P<0.01), orgasm (P<0.000) in the intervention group after the intervention. But, in the control group, no significant increase was seen in any of these dimensions (Table 1). Results of the same test also showed in the intervention group, the mean score of dimensions of sexual self-concept after the consulting showed a significant decrease in the dimension of sexual anxiety (P<0.01), and a significant increase in the dimensions of sexual self-esteem (P<0.04) and sexual satisfaction (P<0.03). But, no significant difference was observed in any of these dimensions in the control group (Table 2).Go toDiscussionThe present study showed that, counseling based on sexual self-concept has a positive effect on maintaining and improving sexual function, which is consistent with the findings of Markus study (1987) which concluded that, dimensions of sexual selfconcept as an important component of individuals’ cognitive system, have active and dynamic nature and are able to change, and can influence the function of individuals and also can be influenced with it [17]. Also in this study, the mean score of dimensions of sexual self-concept after consulting showed a statistically significant decrease in the dimension of sexual anxiety and an increase in the dimensions of sexual self-esteem and sexual satisfaction. The findings of Hensel [18] which showed, the more we reduce sexual anxiety, the more sexual health improves, is also in line with the results of this study. These results are consistent with the findings of Reissing et al. [19] study which indicated that, improving and changing sexual self-concept is immensely effective in improving natural sexual function and preventing sexual dysfunction. Hucker et al. [20] observed that, sexual self-concept potentially increases women's sexual function. Chen et al. [21] showed that, strengthen sexual self-concept in women improves their sexual health. The results of Andersen et al. [22] suggested that, women with improved sexual self-concept have a better and are more successful sexual function [23,24].Go toConclusionThe present study aimed to determine the effect of counseling based on sexual self-concept on sexual health of women in reproductive age who attended health centers in Gorgan a city in Iran. This study showed that, counseling based on sexual self-concept can affect the sexual function of women in reproductive age. It maintains and improves the women's sexual function by changes the dimensions of sexual self-concept. On other words, the results showed the importance of counseling based on sexual self-concept on improving sexual function in people particular women in childbearing age. Since all dimensions of sexual function in this study were not significantly affected by sexual self-concept counseling, it is suggested that, it would be better to conduct such counseling on each of the dimensions of sexual function separately in order to better determine the effects of such counseling on sexual health.Go toAcknowledgementHereby, I would like to thank Gorgan University of Medical Sciences and its expert personnel for their help and support to conduct this study with approval number: GOUMS.REC 1394, 69. Financial Support: Golestan University of Medical ScienceGo toConflicts of InterestThe authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paperGo toLimitationsThe most important limitations in this project were:i. The need to strengthen life skills of the participants (in this study we did not have enough time for it),ii. The questionnaires were completed through selfreporting, andiii. Geographical limitation to generalize the findings.Go toRecommendationsCounseling based on sexual self-concept as a new method of sexual counseling should be taught to midwifery students to maintain and improve sexual health of women. This method of counseling should be used by existing midwives to assess, maintain and improve sexual function of their female clients. To examine the effects of counseling based on sexual self-concept (each of the positive and negative dimensions) on sexual function (one of the dimensions) of different groups of women and men in different ages and periods such as pregnancy and menopause.Halimeh Farahmand Rad
Authored by: Halimeh Farahmand Rad*
#peer review journals#Juniper Publishers#Global journal of reprodutive medicine#juniper pulishers in GJORM#'open access journals
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