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Neolithic pottery

Neolithic Pottery: Unveiling the Revolution

The discovery of pottery, a revolutionary innovation of the Neolithic era, remains shrouded in the mysteries of ancient times.

Serendipitous Transformation: From Clay to Stone

It is believed that Neolithic communities stumbled upon an extraordinary discovery by chance: the transformation of clay into a stone-like substance when exposed to the heat of fire.

Though the exact circumstances of this discovery remain unknown, what is certain is that this material quickly spread across Europe, enabling the creation of objects impossible to shape with stone.

Evolution of the Ceramics Creation Process

The evolution of the ceramics creation process is fascinating. The soft mixture, molded into vase shapes and left to air dry, was subsequently subjected to firing in a specially designed kiln.

From Trench to Dome Oven: Structural Innovations

This kiln, initially a simple trench with a fire at the center and vases arranged at the sides, transformed over time into a raised dome-shaped structure capable of reaching high temperatures and maintaining heat for an extended period.

The Miracle of Firing: From Clay to Ceramics

Through this process, clay transformed into the marvel that is ceramics or terracotta, taking on a vibrant reddish hue after firing.

From "Coiling" Technique to the Potter's Wheel: Turning Point in Vessel Formation

The oldest method, known as "coiling," involved creating a clay cylinder rolled to form the base of the vessel, later shaped by hand.

However, this technique produced vessels with thick and irregular walls. The turning point towards creating thinner and more symmetrical vessels only came with the invention of the potter's wheel, attributed to the Sumerians around 3000 BCE.

From "Cardial Ware" to Painting: Evolution of Decorations

Ancient craftsmen adorned their early vessels by impressing marks on fresh clay, often using small shell-like cardium shells, hence the term "cardial ware."

Over time, decorations became more intricate, including geometric patterns such as triangles, spirals, straight or wavy lines.

Artistic Expression: Painting on Vessels

The art of decoration further evolved with the introduction of painting, applying natural pigments mixed with animal fats to the still-fresh vessel.

This progression marked a significant chapter in the history of ceramics, making it not only functional but also an artistic expression of extraordinary beauty.

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The Cromlech of Stonehenge

The Stonehenge Cromlech, an ancient marvel towering majestically in the British countryside, represents the most famous and imposing stone circle, known as a cromlech. This extraordinary monument is composed of a circle of colossal megaliths, imposing upright stones that support horizontal connecting lintels, some of which rise impressively in height. Stonehenge is an ancient and fascinating example of a trilithic system, a structure built with three main elements: two vertical uprights and a horizontal lintel.

While the impressive stones of Stonehenge underwent modifications during reconstruction work in the first half of the 20th century, they still maintain an alignment that some believe faithfully reproduces the original one. This precision has led to speculation about Stonehenge's possible role as an ancient astronomical observatory, particularly relevant during solstices and equinoxes. However, the interpretation of its use for this purpose remains a subject of debate.

In addition to attracting tourists from around the world, Stonehenge holds deep significance for followers of Celtic traditions, Wicca, and other neopagan religions. Throughout its history, Stonehenge has also played a significant role as the site of a free music festival held from 1972 to 1984.

However, 1985 marked the end of this festival as the British government banned it following a violent clash between the police and some participants, an incident known as the Battle of Beanfield. Stonehenge, with its rich and varied history, continues to be a source of mystery, fascination, and spirituality for those who visit.

Detailed Description of Stonehenge:

The Altar Stone:

At the center of Stonehenge stands the imposing block of green sandstone known as the Altar Stone. This majestic monolith reaches a height of five meters and captivates with its imposing presence. The stone is carved from an extremely hard variety of siliceous sandstone, naturally sourced from about thirty kilometers to the north on the Marlborough Downs. Its geographical origin adds an element of mystery, highlighting the logistical complexity of ancient builders.

Inner Structure – Bluestone Horseshoe:

Within the main circle is the complex structure known as the Bluestone Horseshoe. This formation consists of much smaller stones, each with an average weight of four tons. Surprisingly, these stones traveled a long distance to reach Stonehenge, originating from the Preseli Mountains in southwestern Wales. The variety of stones, including dolerite, rhyolite, sandstone, and volcanic limestone ashes, adds a unique dimension to the geological complexity of Stonehenge.

The Heel Stone:

Once known as the Friar's Heel, this stone tells a captivating story related to its origins. According to a popular tale dating back at least to the 17th century, the devil himself purchased these stones from a woman in Ireland, wrapped them, and transported them to the Salisbury Plain. While one of the stones fell into the River Avon, the others were strategically placed on the plain. The devil, confident in his cunning, exclaimed, "No one will ever find out how these stones got here." However, a wise friar retorted, "That's what you think!" In response, the devil hurled one of the stones at the friar, striking him in the heel. The stone embedded in the ground, where it remains anchored to this day, a silent witness to an ancient showdown between good and evil.

Historical Mentions and Scientific Investigations of Stonehenge:

The historical roots of Stonehenge extend into the mists of time, capturing the interest of ancient writers and modern scholars. In the 1st century BCE, the Greek writer Diodorus Siculus mentioned a place similar to Stonehenge in his Bibliotheca Historica, referring to an island called Hyperborea, beyond the Celts, dedicated to Apollo. Some scholars in the past have speculated that Hyperborea could indicate Britain, and the spherical temple mentioned by Diodorus could be an early reference to Stonehenge.

However, archaeologist Aubrey Burl has cast doubts on this theory, as some parts of Diodorus's description do not seem to fully reconcile with Stonehenge and its surrounding geography. Burl particularly highlighted the mention of Apollo "touching the earth at a very low height," a phenomenon incompatible with the latitude of Stonehenge.

The earliest detailed investigations into Stonehenge date back to 1640 when John Aubrey proclaimed the monument the work of Druids, an idea later amplified by William Stukeley. Aubrey, a pioneer in site analysis, created the first detailed drawings, laying the groundwork for a better understanding of its form and significance. From 1740 onwards, architect John Wood conducted further research, interpreting Stonehenge as a site for pagan rituals. This interpretation, criticized by Stukeley, reflected the beliefs of the time about the nature of the monument.

Isaac Newton, influenced by Stukeley, undertook a symbolic analysis of Stonehenge's stones in the context of the non-geocentric configuration of the solar system. This perspective, derived from his conception of a perfect model based on the Temple of Jerusalem, suggested that the builders of Stonehenge possessed ancient scientific knowledge.

Radiocarbon dating has revealed that Stonehenge underwent construction phases between 3100 BCE and 1600 BCE, with the circular earthen mound and ditch built in 3100 BCE. The visible stones today mainly belong to the Stonehenge 3 phase (2600 BCE – 1600 BCE). Recent research, such as the 2020 XRF spectrophotometry, has provided new data, indicating a dating of 2500 BCE.

Theories about the construction of Stonehenge, once tied to the Druids, have been challenged considering the late spread of Celtic society. Moreover, the practice of Druid rituals in forests suggests that Stonehenge might not have been the ideal place for their "earth rituals." Ongoing scientific research is gradually unraveling the mysteries of this monument, shedding new light on its past and true nature.

Controversies and Discoveries:

Restorations and Disputes:

Since the early 19th century, a series of modifications and restorations have shaped Stonehenge's current appearance. Victorian engineers, with zeal and preservation intentions, positioned many of the fallen stones in their current locations. Recent research indicates that these restoration works continued into the 1970s, introducing substantial changes to the original arrangement. Archaeologists from English Heritage acknowledge that, without these interventions, Stonehenge would look significantly different today. Very few stones still retain their original positions, erected millennia ago.

Discoveries in the Vicinity:

Just 3 km from Stonehenge, researchers from the National Geographic Society discovered a village dating back to 2600 BCE. This settlement, consisting of approximately twenty-five small dwellings, is presumed to have accommodated builders of the complex or participants in specific ceremonies. This discovery provides a broader insight into the life and social organization of ancient times, connecting Stonehenge's history to a wider context.

Prehistoric Astronomical Observatory:

Stonehenge's function as a prehistoric astronomical observatory is a subject of debate. The monument's axis is oriented towards sunrise during summer solstices, suggesting a connection with astronomy. However, this orientation does not occur during winter solstices, fueling mystery and conflicting interpretations about its real utility. The complexity of Stonehenge continues to intrigue scholars and enthusiasts, and its alleged astral function adds a layer of mystery to its history.

Denial of Roman Theories:

Contrary to the theories of Inigo Jones and others, suggesting that Stonehenge could have been built as a Roman temple, the historical fact that the Romans first arrived on the British Isles with the arrival of Julius Caesar in 55 BCE negates these hypotheses. Stonehenge, with its intricate history and connection to distant eras, continues to challenge and fascinate those seeking to unravel its secrets hidden over millennia.

Theories about Construction:

Extraction and Transport of Large Stones:

The majestic stones of Stonehenge, some of which weigh an impressive 25/50 tons and are made of gneiss, were extracted from a hill located 30 km from the archaeological site. The process of transporting these massive stones involved the use of sledges sliding on wooden rollers, pulled by dozens of men through likely collective efforts. This titanic operation represents an extraordinary expression of engineering capabilities of the time.

Origin of Smaller Stones:

The smaller stones, an integral part of Stonehenge, were extracted from various locations, expanding the logistical complexity of the project. A site just 3 km away contributed some of these stones, while others were extracted from more distant sites, including a location in Wales over 200 km away. The variety of sources underscores the geographic scope of the efforts made for the construction of Stonehenge.

New Research and Rejection of Previous Theories:

A study published in June 2018 challenged the previous theories of geologist Herbert Henry Thomas from 1923, which had influenced the scientific community regarding specific extraction sites and stone transport methods. The new research suggests that the Bristol Channel was not used as previously supposed, but that the stones might have been transported through internal roads. Additionally, it is hypothesized that the Altar Stone could come from Senni Beds, a sandstone formation extending through Wales to Herefordshire in eastern Wales. This conceptual shift sheds new light on the intricate logistics of Stonehenge.

Erection and Construction Process:

The raising of the vertical stones involved a complex process. Initially, the stones were dragged to a hole in the ground, then slid into the hole using a lever system resting against a "castle" of logs. Once in the upright position, the stones were secured using ropes, and the hole was filled with stones. The assembly of the lintel occurred gradually, using wooden scaffolding and levers, highlighting the technical mastery of Stonehenge's prehistoric builders.

Legends and Myths Surrounding Stonehenge:

Association with King Arthur:

Stonehenge is shrouded in the legend of King Arthur, where the wizard Merlin would have requested the removal of the monument from Ireland, originally built on Mount Killaraus by giants who transported the stones from Africa. After being rebuilt near Amesbury, the legend states that Uther Pendragon and later Constantine III were buried inside the stone circle. This mythical connection adds an epic charm to Stonehenge's story, intertwining the ancient monument with the legends of one of Britain's most famous rulers.

Similar Neolithic Circles:

Stonehenge is not the only prominent Neolithic circle, and several similar structures date approximately to the same era. Among these, the "Ring of Brodgar" in northern Scotland offers another example of Neolithic complexity. Additionally, a similar circle, dating to around 4900 BCE, is found in Goseck, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. These structures suggest the presence of ancient communities sharing ideas and construction practices.

Calendar Circle at Nabta Playa:

A complex known as the "Calendar Circle," originally built at Nabta Playa and now displayed at the Nubian Museum in Aswan, predates Stonehenge by at least a thousand years. This ancient structure, with its astronomical implications, highlights the diversity and spread of construction practices in ancient times.

Megalithic Circles in Italy:

In Italy, several examples of megalithic circles are found in Sardinia, adding a touch of mystery and global connection. The "Circle of Li Muri" in Arzachena and the "Circle of Pranu Muttedu" in Goni are examples of ancient megalithic achievements that emphasize the presence of common practices in different regions of the ancient world. These testimonies speak of a past rich in symbolism and meaning, where communities expressed their connection with the divine through majestic stone constructions.

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Megalithic Constructions

In the final phase of the Neolithic and the subsequent Eneolithic period, a remarkable development of megalithic constructions emerged, a term derived from the Greek ("mégas" for large and "lithòs" for stone). These imposing structures, largely dedicated to worship and collective burials, bear witness to the ingenuity and spirituality of ancient civilizations.

Menhir: Towering Monuments of Symbolic Meaning

Menhirs, derived from Breton ("men" for stone and "hir" for long), are tall monoliths driven into the ground, often marking burial sites. Their height, ranging from 2-3 meters to 6 meters, can reach extraordinary peaks, as highlighted by the Breton menhirs of Kerloas and Locmariaquer. These monoliths can be isolated or arranged in straight or circular alignments, often oriented in precise astronomical directions. In Carnac, Brittany, a complex of about 3000 menhirs extends in parallel rows, oriented westward, creating a captivating panorama over a kilometer long.

Dolmen: Innovative Trilithic System in Funerary Architecture

The dolmen, derived from Breton ("doul" or "tol" for table and "men" for stone), constitutes a form of funerary architecture. Composed of two or more stone blocks driven into the ground, surmounted by a horizontal slab, this trilithic construction system represents mankind's first use in this regard. The dolmen, primarily sepulchral, can be an individual or collective tomb, often characterized by an access corridor. Initially covered by stone or earth tumuli, the oldest dolmens in Italy are found in Sardinia, Apulia, and the Alpine region for the Copper Age.

Cromlech: Concentric Monuments of Astronomical Significance

Cromlechs, derived from Breton ("crom" for round and "lech" for stone), represent the monumental application of the trilithic system. These consist of series of dolmens arranged in concentric circular figures. Widespread in Neolithic and Eneolithic Europe, cromlechs originally served to define the lunar cycle, later adapting to indicate the movement of the Sun and the progression of seasons. In addition to their practical utility, these sites were spaces for collective ceremonies, including funeral, agricultural, and fertility rites.

Allée Couverte: Collective Funerary Constructions in France

Another application of the dolmen, particularly common in France, is the Allée couverte ("covered alley"). These collective funerary constructions are composed of stone slabs supported by vertical structures or dry-stone walls, sometimes reaching considerable dimensions. A notable example is the Allée couverte du Mougau, erected between the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of the Eneolithic, which stands out for the presence of engravings. The structure, 14 meters long, has a north-south orientation, with a northern entrance and a chamber at the southern end, likely preceded by a vestibule.

In Conclusion

Megalithic constructions bear witness to the rich cultural and religious landscape of ancient civilizations, offering a detailed look into how these communities conceived the world and the divine.

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The Neolithic

The term Neolithic, derived from the Greek words "neo" (new) and "lithos" (stone), indicates the era in which humanity perfected the art of working stone, giving it a smooth surface. This phase began approximately 8,000 years ago and concluded about 5,000 years ago.

Transformation Engines: Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

The transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic was primarily driven by the discovery of agriculture and animal husbandry. These two pillars transformed humans from nomads to sedentary beings, marking the beginning of community life.

Mesolithic: The Transitional Age

The Mesolithic, known as the middle stone age, served as a bridge between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, characterized by a gradual shift in human lifestyles.

Neolithic Architecture: From Huts to Stilt Houses

While in the Paleolithic, dwellings consisted of caves and rudimentary huts, the Neolithic witnessed the construction of the first structured houses. Houses, made with wooden beams and clay and straw bricks, featured a single large central room, often equipped with a hearth.

Over time, to defend against enemies and fierce animals, humans developed stilt houses, huts built on stilts driven into lakes or marshes, connected to the mainland by walkways.

Neolithic Village Organization: From Field to Community

Neolithic villages were located near watercourses and included houses, ovens, granaries, and other essential elements. Village inhabitants specialized in specific tasks, with women dedicated to weaving and leatherworking, while men engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry.

Social Structure: Clans, Tribes, and Communities

Families within the village formed clans, each with an elder as its leader. Decisions involving the entire village were made by gathering the heads of families. The need to live in groups led to the creation of shared rules, giving rise to cohesive communities with common language, habits, and rules.

Exploring New Horizons: Art, Trade, and Spirituality

With the development of agriculture and animal husbandry, the Neolithic human perfected the art of working stone and metals, giving rise to advanced tools. Ceramics, craftsmanship, and early forms of trade flourished, paving the way for new artistic expressions and the construction of monuments dedicated to divine worship.

In conclusion, the Neolithic is not just the era of new stone but represents a crucial chapter in human history, marked by the transformation of lifestyles and the emergence of complex societies.

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The Mesolithic Era

Introduction: The Origin of the Term Mesolithic

The term Mesolithic derives from the combination of two Greek words:

mesos: in the middle

líthos: stone

The Mesolithic represents the era of the middle stone, marking the transition between the Paleolithic, the era of ancient stone, and the Neolithic, the era of new stone.

Dating and Duration

The Mesolithic began approximately 10,000 years ago, unfolding over a timeframe that concluded about 8,000 years ago. This period was characterized by significant environmental and behavioral changes.

Glacial Melting and Floods

One of the key events of the Mesolithic was the melting of glaciers, leading to an era of floods. This phenomenon resulted in a significant reduction of vegetation and caused the death of numerous animal species. This condition posed an increasing challenge for humans in sourcing food.

Transition to Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

With the growing difficulty in hunting wild animals and finding plant resources, humanity was compelled to innovate. In response to environmental challenges, humans began practicing animal husbandry and developed early forms of agriculture.

Abandonment of Nomadism and Sedentary Life

Gradually, humans abandoned the nomadic lifestyle, favoring a transition to a sedentary life. This behavioral change was motivated by the need to ensure a stable food supply through agriculture and animal husbandry.

Climate Changes and the Birth of the Neolithic

With the retreat of waters that had previously flooded the Earth, the climate became drier, creating more favorable living conditions. This marked the beginning of the Neolithic, an era characterized by further technological and social developments.

Conclusion: A Period of Fundamental Innovation

The Mesolithic emerges as a crucial period in human history, marked by environmental challenges that stimulated innovation and the transition to more settled ways of life, paving the way for the Neolithic and its subsequent evolutions.

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The Venus of Willendorf

Exploring the Majestic Venus of Willendorf: A Paleolithic Masterpiece

The Venus of Willendorf, considered the most illustrious among the Paleolithic Venuses, is a statuette carved from oolitic limestone and adorned with red ochre paintings, standing at a height of 11 cm. Dated between 24,000 and 22,000 B.C., this iconic work of art is not native to the region where it was discovered but now reigns supreme in the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna.

Chronicle of an Extraordinary Discovery

In 1908, archaeologist Josef Szombathy discovered the Venus of Willendorf at an archaeological site near Willendorf in der Wachau, along the left bank of the Danube in Austria. The Paleolithic site underwent careful examination around 1990, allowing a reevaluation of previous estimates regarding the artwork's dating. Stratigraphic analysis indicated that the statuette was created between 25,000 and 26,000 years ago, a significant correction from earlier estimates that erroneously placed it between 10,000 B.C. and 32,000 B.C.

Sculptural Anatomy: Details and Vibrant Colors

The Venus of Willendorf, representing a nude female figure, rests her arms on her breasts. The most distinctive features are the rounded and ample forms, while facial features are deliberately left uncarved. The spherical head is covered with a hairstyle interpreted as a headdress of shells or a coiffure, perhaps reminiscent of the curly and frizzy hair typical of the African population.

The reddish clay surface, combined with the yellowish and porous limestone, creates a play of light and shadow that highlights the roughness of the surface. The underlying shadow emphasizes the abundant shapes of the figure, creating a suggestive chiaroscuro effect.

Symbolic Meaning: Fertility and Mother Earth Worship

The Venus of Willendorf, the precursor of prehistoric Venuses, is steeped in symbolism. These statuettes, usually ranging from 3 to 15 cm, often feature elongated legs and heads, perhaps suggesting the practice of embedding them in fields or among cave rocks, according to the customs of the time.

Accentuated sexual traits, such as monumental breasts, a prominent belly, and ample buttocks, are interpreted as symbols of fertility. The Venus of Willendorf, with its pronounced forms and attention to detail in sculpture, connects to the worship of Mother Earth and her ability to foster prosperity.

In conclusion, this statuette embodies the symbolism of an era where population growth was pivotal in elevating social status, emphasizing the primary importance of births in the construction of a civilization.

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Chauvet Caves

This extraordinary cave, located in the southern region of France, unveiled its secrets back in 1994.

32,000 Years Ago: The Oldest Documented Paintings

The paintings found here, the oldest ever documented, date back to 32,000 years ago.

Sealed Cave: 20,000 Years of Preserved Integrity

The Chauvet Cave, named in honor of one of its discoverers, had maintained its integrity until that moment, protected by a landslide that had sealed the entrance 20,000 years earlier.

Animal Kingdom Represented: From Mammoths to Owls

These cave paintings are predominantly dedicated to depictions of animals, ranging from majestic mammoths, bears, cave lions, rhinoceroses, bison, and aurochs, to more harmless creatures like deer, reindeer, horses, and even an owl.

Hunting in Action: Lionesses and Prey in Motion

The most impressive wall depicts dozens of lionesses chasing a group of mammoths, bison, and rhinoceroses. The artists have masterfully captured the dynamism of the scene, outlining with variations in thickness and intensity the silhouettes of the animals in the foreground and background. Accurate shading on the backs and muzzles contributes to a sense of three-dimensional volume.

Artistic Mastery: Color, Chiaroscuro, and Engraving

The extraordinary quality of the painted images is evident in the mastery of color and chiaroscuro, skillfully combining painting with engraving.

Anatomical Details: In-Depth Knowledge of Subjects

Surprisingly, the unknown prehistoric artists demonstrate a detailed knowledge of the anatomy of the subjects, creating works that suggest three-dimensionality and movement.

Unveiling the Mystery: Scientific Analysis and Precise Dating

This artistic mastery puzzled scholars for a long time, as it seemed incredible that prehistoric humans could produce such refined works. Only through in-depth scientific analysis was it possible to precisely date these extraordinary cave paintings, revealing the true extent of the artistic skills of our ancestors.

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Lascaux Caves

The Discovery of Lascaux Caves

Lascaux Caves, defined as the "Sistine Chapel" of Prehistory, emerged from the darkness of history in 1940 in the picturesque Dordogne region of France.

World Heritage: Lascaux in the UNESCO List

Recognized as the pinnacle of prehistoric pictorial expression, these caves have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage since 1979.

Iconographic Repertoire of Lascaux

Originating from the Upper Paleolithic, the captivating paintings, dating back to an estimated period between 13,000 and 15,000 B.C., feature an iconographic repertoire dominated by magnificent creatures, from the visceral power of bulls to the grace of horses, from majestic bison to imposing ibexes, some of which are now extinct.

Artistic Technique: Paintings Directly on Rock

The rock art of Lascaux is a testament to the technical skill of its creators, as the paintings are executed directly on the limestone rock without the use of plaster, challenging the usual definition of "fresco."

The Vibrant and Enduring Impact of Paintings

The permeable limestone rock and the surrounding humid environment favored the deep penetration of colored pigments, giving the works a vibrant and enduring impact.

The Mystery of the "Chinese Horse" of Lascaux

Particularly intriguing is the famous "Chinese horse" of Lascaux, outlined with a thick contour line obtained through the use of black charcoal. Details such as the fur emphasized by shaded strokes and the coat painted with ochre, red, and brown, interspersed with black stripes on the back, reveal an extraordinary technical mastery.

Dynamism and Realism: Details of Representations

Carefully observing the dynamic action depicted, with arrows coming onto the horse's back, we note the realistic rendering of the mane, painted with such skill as to mimic the horse's mane with shades of black. The figure of the horse, strategically placed on a rocky protrusion at the abdomen, is an eloquent example of the spatial and compositional awareness of the prehistoric artist, accentuating the abdomen in a suggestive manner.

Transcending Time: Lascaux's Timeless Legacy

Ultimately, the rock art of Lascaux transcends time, transporting us to an era when humanity communicated its world through primitive brushes but with timeless mastery.

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The Paleolithic Era

Introduction: The Paleolithic: The Ancient Stone Age

Derived from the Greek words "palaiòs" (meaning "old") and "lìthos" (translating to "stone"), the Paleolithic represents the ancient era of stone. During this period, humans inhabited caves and sourced their food through hunting and gathering of wild plants, following a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

The Art of Tools: From Flint to Amigdala

For tool-making, they used stones by chipping a piece of flint with harder stones. This method gave rise to choppers, which were used as weapons or for cutting meat and scraping hides.

Later on, these stones were chipped on both sides to create the amigdala, a kind of hand axe with an almond-like shape, sometimes decorated with geometric signs to emphasize ownership. This represents one of the first "artistic" expressions made by humans in this period.

Nomadic Dwellings: Caves and Prehistoric Shelters

Dwellings are not permanent since the hunter-gatherer lives in a nomadic manner. Consequently, Paleolithic humans tend to inhabit natural caves, such as those found in Pantalica, Sicily, but mainly in shelters resembling tent structures.

Artistic Expression: Birth of Rock Art

In the late Paleolithic, rock art emerged, with the first painted or engraved representations on rocks. These images depict animals and moving humans and seem to have had a dual function: they might have been used as part of propitiatory rituals to enhance hunting or as a narration of real events. Surprisingly, these representations maintain a remarkable degree of realism, though often stylized, allowing us to recognize the depicted animals even today.

Rock Treasures Worldwide: From Altamira to Val Camonica

Today, we can admire numerous examples of this artistic testimony in places like Altamira in Spain, Chauvet and Lascaux in France, Alt in Norway, the Tibesti Massif in Chad, Val Camonica in Lombardy, and Monte Pellegrino.

Hunters and Artists: Duality in Rock Images

Images of animals, as well as human figures, are the most recurring subjects of rock paintings. Their main function was probably of a magical and propitiatory nature: representing a hunting scene could bring luck to the hunters.

However, in scenes involving only animals, we might find a simple artistic purpose, that is, capturing, through drawing and color, the beauty of the surrounding reality.

Handprints: The First Form of Artistic Expression

The most primitive form of prehistoric painting comes to us in the form of handprints, obtained by pressing the color-soaked hand, tracing its outline with a finger dipped in pigment, or even spraying it with a straw. The use of these prints, often made with the left hand, remains shrouded in mystery, but undoubtedly, these enigmatic traces also speak the language of art.

Enigmas and Mysteries: Women behind the Prints

According to some scholars, a significant portion of the prints might belong to women, as the ring and index fingers of the hands that made them have the same length (while in men, on average, the ring finger is slightly longer).

The Allure of Ancient Traces: Prehistoric Art That Still Speaks

This detail adds a particular charm to these ancient prints, which remain a suggestive enigma in the history of prehistoric art.

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