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Week 10: You've been TROLLED! The problem plaguing online interactions

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One of the key takeaways of this unit is that the online space is a great place for people from all walks of life to come together and enjoy themselves. But like pretty much everything in this life, it also has a downside, and in this case: Online Harassment.

The Four Horsemen of Online Harassment

While online harassment can come in many shapes and forms, the most common ones are: Trolling, Flaming, Cyberbullying and Doxxing.

Trolling is the act of posting messages that are provocative, aggressive and disruptive, all while masquerading under the guise of sincerity and innocence. "A collective form of harassment perceived as having the malicious intent to provoke another user" (Ortiz 2020).

Flaming, on the other hand, is more direct. Categorized as direct, hostile emotional expressions (such as profanity, insults,...) (Andersen 2021).

Cyberbullying is a more focused and personal form of harassment. defined as aggressive and intentional acts carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself (Smith et al. 2008).

Lastly, Doxxing is a relatively new form of online harassment, but arguably the most dangerous, as it involves searching for or publishing private or identifying information on a particular individual on the Internet without their permission (Chen, Cheung & Chan 2019).

Crimes and Punishment

Due to the fact that there are currently not a lot of official legislation against bullying and online harassment, the issue has really gotten out of hands, and it is absolutely crucial for government worldwide to start looking at different forms of online harassments as legitimate forms of abuse, punishable by law.

References

Andersen, IV 2021, ‘Hostility online: Flaming, trolling, and the public debate’, First Monday, vol. 26, no. 3.

Chen, M, Cheung, A & Chan, K 2019, ‘Doxing: What Adolescents Look for and Their Intentions’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 218.

Ortiz, SM 2020, ‘Trolling as a Collective Form of Harassment: An Inductive Study of How Online Users Understand Trolling’, Social Media + Society, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 205630512092851.

Smith, PK, Mahdavi, J, Carvalho, M, Fisher, S, Russell, S & Tippett, N 2008, ‘Cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils’, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, vol. 49, no. 4, England, pp. 376–85, viewed 20 March 2024, <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18363945>.

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Week 9: Communities, or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Game

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Gaming can be anything you want

Ever since the dawn of man, we have always been interested in finding different ways to entertain ourselves. First, it was cave painting and making weird noises around the campfire, then it became writing and reading, then making up physical games to pass the time.

Then, somewhere down the line, some absolute genius of a man (or woman, we don't know for sure) invented The Royal Game of Ur in Mesopotamia, and that action changed the course of human history forever.

This boardgame, which would not look out of place among a lineup of the latest boardgame collection at your local bookstore, was so universally loved that it eventually acquired superstitious significance among the population:

"Instead of seeing randomness, people saw the invisible hand of the spiritual realm. Landing on the Waters of Chaos in senet was no random event but a message from a god, a ghost, or even your own soul" (Donovan 2017, p. 16).

Jeez, and they say games were good for nothing...

Fast forward to today, and games are everywhere. From boardgames collecting dust on the shelves of bookstores (seriously though, Vietnamese children should REALLY start playing boardgames again instead of burning away their dopamine receptors by watching YouTube Shorts and TikToks 24/7), to video games covering basically every single need imaginable.

You want a competitive experience with challenging gameplay? Pick up League of Legends!

You want to just sit back and have some fun with a couple of friends? Boot up Among Us!

You want to experience a heartfelt and gripping story about love, loss and regrets, that would forever change how you look at your life and the seemingly mundane experiences you go through? First off, are you okay 🥺? Secondly, play To The Moon!

All in all, gaming has come such a long way that in its current form, it literally has something for everybody.

Gaming just really brings people together

Games have always been a core part of my life. Even before I was introduced to digital devices, I was fascinated with traditional Vietnamese games like Ô Ăn Quan and Cờ Cá Ngựa.

This love for playing games has led me to many different friend groups over the years, and while we all come from different walks of life, when we got together, only one thing mattered: having fun.

And that, in my opinion, is where gaming's the most powerful. Even though some games can be played alone, the experience has always been about connecting with other people through a medium that is enjoyed by all parties involved.

Like every other hobby, gaming really brings people from all different backgrounds together. But perhaps due to the fact that most of the interactions between members of gaming communities happen online, which eliminates the need for face to face interactions, the medium has become a safe space for introverted gamers to fully emerge themselves in their hobby, without fear of being judged (Kowert, Domahidi & Quandt 2014).

Furthermore, gaming as a hobby is still a controversial pastime, with many parents complaining that they are good for nothing. Research has shown that 4 in 10 adults still believe that people who play video games are more likely to be violent (Duggan 2015). Parents also associate their children playing games with more conduct and peer problems, as well as less prosocial behaviour (Lobel et al. 2014).

This negative attitude towards gaming has given the communities built around it this sort of aura of mutual empathy for each other, a trait similar to counterculture and outcast groups of the past decades (Steltenpohl 2020).

References

Donovan, T 2017, It’s All a Game : the History of Board Games from Monopoly to Settlers of Catan, Thomas Dunne Books, New York, p. 16.

Duggan, M 2015, ‘Gaming and Gamers’, Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech, viewed 13 March 2024, <https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/12/15/gaming-and-gamers/>.

Steltenpohl, CN 2020, ‘Exploring online and gaming communities through community psychology’, Thesis Commons (OSF Preprints), Center for Open Science.

Kowert, R, Domahidi, E & Quandt, T 2014, ‘The Relationship Between Online Video Game Involvement and Gaming-Related Friendships Among Emotionally Sensitive Individuals’, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol. 17, no. 7, pp. 447–453, viewed 13 March 2024, <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4080869/pdf/cyber.2013.0656.pdf>.

Lobel, A, Granic, I, Stone, LL & Engels, RCME 2014, ‘Associations between children’s video game playing and psychosocial health: information from both parent and child reports’, Cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking, vol. 17, no. 10, United States, pp. 639–43, viewed 13 March 2024, <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25272237>.

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Week 8: The augmented reality of filters

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Last week, we discussed the usage of body modification, and one of the things that were briefly touched upon was digital filters. In this week's blog post, I'll be expanding on that, and talk about filters in detail, as well as their relationship with augmented reality.

Reality, but... Different

Augmented Reality as a concept has existed since the 1960s. The first ever recorded instance of this technology emerged in 1968, when "the father of computer graphics", Harvard computer scientist Ivan Sutherland, developed an AR head-mounted display system (Javornik 2016).

Since then, scientists and developers alike have been trying to create an augmented reality system that could be used for practical purposes in everyday life. The first step towards this goal came in 2008, when German marketing agencies designed a printed magazine ad for a model of a BMW Mini. When held in front of a digital camera, a 3d model of the car would appear on the screen (Thi 2022).

The early 2010s saw an explosion of brands trying to incorporate augmented reality into their business model. From Toys-to-life games such as Skylanders and Disney Infinity, to virtual changing rooms, where consumers can "try on" products from the confines of their home.

One of my favourite applications of AR is to explore culturally significant locations from history. While learning about a place via reading books or watching videos is cool on its own, exploring the nooks and crannies of the Roman colosseum in its golden days, or taking a walk along the great pyramids of Egypt, all by pointing your phone at the ground, are experiences that you really can't get anywhere else (except maybe videogames, which, coincidentally, is the topic of next week's blog post 😉).

However, the most widespread application of augmented reality, by FAR, is digital filters.

The age of filters

Originally introduced in 2015, AR filters became an overnight sensation, forever embedding Snapchat into the public consciousness as "that app with the silly and cute filters". Since then, filters have evolved into an essential part of any social media platform, and it's extremely hard to find someone who has never at least tried one before.

Even though filters started out as something fun and harmless, it wasn't long until some people realized that they can be used to modify and filter out certain unwanted characteristics from pictures.

And thus, everyone decided to start looking exactly like each other...

While that was an exaggeration, it is still true that beautification filters completely changed the landscape of selfies worldwide. funny animal filters were replaced with ones that could make your face thinner, lips redder and eyes wider, all in an attempt to obtain the "ideal look".

Personally, I've never been a big fan of beautification filters. While it can be flattering to look at an "ideal" version of yourself, it can create and reinforce negative ideas that one may have about their own body, especially their facial features. When you can attain a conventionally attractive look with just a click of a button, it is almost impossible to not somewhat doubt your real level of attractiveness.

Constant exposure to Snapchat beautifying effects can also lead users to internalize societal messages that prioritize certain features as more desirable, pure, and beautiful. this can result in users detesting their own features and feeling pressured to conform to a specific image of perception, which may not align with their authentic selves (Barker 2020).

References

Barker, J 2020, ‘Making-up on mobile: The pretty filters and ugly implications of Snapchat’, Fashion, Style & Popular Culture, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 207–221.

Javornik, A 2016, ‘The Mainstreaming of Augmented Reality: A Brief History’, Harvard Business Review, viewed 7 March 2024, <https://hbr.org/2016/10/the-mainstreaming-of-augmented-reality-a-brief-history>.

Thi, S 2022, ‘2008 - First AR ad | Atomic Digital Design’, atomicdigital.design, viewed 7 March 2024, <https://atomicdigital.design/blog-post/augmented-reality-and-the-future-of-advertising>.

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Week 7: From an Iceman to the Kardashian: How body modification evolved through the ages.

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Wait... Haven't we been doing this for a looong time?

For as long as mankind has existed, we have been constantly on the lookout for ways to enhance our physical appearance, whether it be via tattoos, piercing or digital filters and photoshop.

The oldest currently known instance of body modification belongs to Ötzi the Iceman, an over 5,300 years old mummified body found in the Alps' Ötzi Valley in 1991. His body was home to sixty-one carbon pigment marks on the abdomen, lower back, lower legs, and left wrist. These tattoos seem to indicate that the man was perhaps of significance status, or was involved in some kind of ritual (Samadelli et al. 2015).

The next step for body modification in ancient times was body piercing. One of the first documented case of nose piercing actually came from the Bible. As written in the Book of Genesis (24:22): "When the camels had finished drinking, the man took out a gold nose ring weighing a beka and two gold bracelets weighing ten shekels." The practice of men gifting gold nose jewelry to their spouse is a tradition that is still practiced to this day by the Bedouin tribes.

After tattoos and piercing, more extreme forms of body modification started appearing all over the world, with notable mentions being Chinese foot binding and Myanmar's Kayan tribe neck rings.

Besides ceremonial and aesthetics purposes, plastic surgery also emerged as a popular form of body modification. Reasons for getting an operation range from for beauty purposes to getting rid of unwanted features stemming from disabilities.

Now, in the modern day and age, body modification is everywhere, from tattoos and piercings to nose jobs and digital filters (The topic of next week's post 😉).

Even though it originally started as a way for people to express themselves, as well as for ceremonial purposes and medical ones, body modification has gained a bad rap in recent years, due to the influx of influencers posting pictures and videos of their body on social media. While there's nothing inherently wrong with doing this, the things influencers post are often overly sexualized, to the point where the term "Sexualized Labour" can be applied.

Influencers and Sexualized Labour

Sexualized labour refers to work that involves a sexual or sexualized element, where individuals may use their sexuality, sexual appeal, or sexualized attributes as part of their job performance.

In the context of digital culture, sexualized labour can manifest in various forms, such as influencers on social media platforms like Instagram using their sexualized aesthetic to attract attention and monetize their online presence (Drenten, Gurrieri & Tyler 2019).

Specifically, on Instagram, sexualized labour is performed in various ways:

Connective Labour: Female influencers engage in connective labour to mobilize their sexualized aesthetic and emotional labour on Instagram. This involves tagging numerous profiles, using hashtags, and creating affiliations to attract attention, gain followers, and increase likes without immediate financial compensation.

Affiliation-based Influencer Labour: Some influencers, known as "hopefuls," provide free advertising for brands by subscribing to culturally prescribed female body ideals to attract attention and potential affiliate brands. This labour is sexually objectifying and adds value to economies without direct monetary incentives 12.

Access-based Influencer Labour: Influencers, referred to as "boasters," may have informal affiliations with brands and receive branded freebies, product trials, or coupon codes. They boast about these affiliations to capitalize on brand attention, even though they may not receive meaningful monetary compensation.

Performance of Sexualized Labour: Female influencers on Instagram engage in aesthetic labour, emotional labour, and a "porn chic" sexualization to attract attention and monetize their online presence. This involves crafting specific body poses, gestures, and stylistic choices that align with existing cultural norms of sexualization.

Self-Commodification Continuum: Influencers navigate a continuum of self-commodification, ranging from non-monetized and low attention practices to monetized and high attention practices. This continuum reflects the ways in which influencers leverage their sexualized labour for different levels of attention and potential financial rewards.

These practices highlight the complex dynamics of sexualized labour in digital culture, where influencers strategically use their online presence to engage with audiences, attract brands, and navigate the attention economy on platforms like Instagram.

Furthermore, sexualized labour in digital culture can also be categorized as below:

References

Drenten, J, Gurrieri, L & Tyler, M 2019, ‘Sexualized labour in digital culture: Instagram influencers, porn chic and the monetization of attention’, Gender, Work & Organization, vol. 27, no. 1.

Samadelli, M, Melis, M, Miccoli, M, Vigl, EE & Zink, AR 2015, ‘Complete mapping of the tattoos of the 5300-year-old Tyrolean Iceman’, Journal of Cultural Heritage, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 753–758, viewed <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1296207415000023>.

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Week 6: The key to the Slow Fashion Movement is... Influencers?

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The history of sustainable fashion

The first instances of sustainable fashion emerged in the 60s as a way for counter culture groups such as hippies and punks to rebel against the norm, rejecting the mass consumerism popular at the time for a more unique and sustainable lifestyle, using secondhand clothing (POMP MMXIX 2023).

Then, in the 80s, vintage clothing became even more popular among the general public. Another core contributor to the rise of sustainable fashion was the various anti-fur movements of the era, spearheaded by activist groups like Trans Species Unlimited (TSU) and the Coalition to Abolish the Fur Trade (CAFT) (Last Chance for Animals n.d.).

The 90s marked the start of businesses using sustainability as a selling point, as more and more consumers started making more environmentally conscious purchasing decisions. Sustainability movements also started gaining a lot more traction.

Then, in the 2010s, an event took place that would embed the dark side of the fashion industry in the collective consciousness for the foreseeable future. On 24 April 2013, Rana Plaza, located in the Savar Upazila of Dhaka District, Bangladesh, collapsed, killing 1,134 people and injuring over 2,500. The incident was a major turning point for the Bangladesh garment industry specifically, and the fashion industry as a whole, as it brought to light the poor working conditions of sweatshops around the world, as well as various other secrets of the industry. This event was the catalyst for a new age of consumers, who demand more transparency from brands in regards to their practices (Aizawa & Tripathi 2015).

Now, in the 2020s, the amount of environmentally conscious consumers is at an all time high, and the market for sustainable fashion is seeing unprecedented growth, which also means there is higher demand than ever before for authentic sustainability.

Which leads us directly to...

The Slow Fashion Movement

Slow Fashion is a movement that has been gaining traction in recent years in the fashion industry. It revolves around producing and consuming clothing that prioritizes sustainability, ethical practices, and longevity.

The movement represents the need to adopt sustainable performance and a change in core values in the fashion industry.

Ultimately, the goal of the Slow Fashion Movement is to encourage brands to embrace a quality based instead of a time based business philosophy (Domingos, Vale & Faria 2022).

While the movement has gained quite a bit of traction in recent years, it's still waiting for a push, an opportunity to truly embed itself in the public consciousness, something like...

Influencers and the influence they could have

Online influencers are a largely untapped resource when it comes to aiding the Slow Fashion Movement. They represent a new type of independent third party endorsers, who can shape audience attitudes through blogs, tweets, and the use of other social media (Freberg et al. 2011).

Since influencers share more personal content that revolves around their lifestyle and interests, they have the unique power to forge deeper psychological bonds with their followers (Audrezet et al. 2020).

Influencers also belong to a group that already play prominent roles in the ecosystem of the fashion industry, as they are often given front rows seats at fashion shows, as well as wear branded designer clothes in publics (Wissinger 2015).

With this information in mind, it is quite clear to see that influencers have a huge impact on the mindset of consumers who follow them, and if done correctly, they can provide a much needed boost to the popularity of the Slow Fashion Movement.

So, what can influencers do to aid the Slow Fashion Movement specifically?

Influencers' Role in the Slow Fashion Movement

Influencers can play a significant role in aiding the slow fashion movement by using their platforms to promote sustainable and ethical fashion choices. While different people can help in different ways, listed below are 3 specific actions that any influencer can take.

1. Raising Awareness: Influencers have the power to reach a wide audience and raise awareness about the negative environmental and social impacts of fast fashion. They can educate their followers about the benefits of slow fashion, such as reducing waste, supporting fair trade practices, and promoting sustainable materials.

2. Advocating for Ethical Brands: Influencers can use their platforms to highlight and promote ethical and sustainable fashion brands. By showcasing these brands and their practices, influencers can encourage their followers to make mindful purchasing decisions and support companies that prioritize sustainability and ethical production.

3. Sharing Sustainable Fashion Tips: Influencers can share practical tips and advice on how to embrace slow fashion in everyday life. This can include styling tips for creating versatile outfits with fewer pieces, showcasing wardrobe essentials, and promoting capsule wardrobes. By providing inspiration and guidance, influencers can help their followers adopt more conscious and sustainable fashion habits.

However,...

It's important to note that the effectiveness of influencers in aiding the slow fashion movement depends on their authenticity and commitment to sustainability. Genuine passion and knowledge about the subject matter are crucial for influencers to have a positive impact and inspire meaningful change among their followers.

References

Aizawa, M & Tripathi, S 2015, ‘Beyond Rana Plaza: Next Steps for the Global Garment Industry and Bangladeshi Manufacturers’, Business and Human Rights Journal, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 145–151.

Audrezet, A, de Kerviler, G & Guidry Moulard, J 2020, ‘Authenticity under threat: When Social Media Influencers Need to Go beyond self-presentation’, Journal of Business Research, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 557–569.

Domingos, M, Vale, VT & Faria, S 2022, ‘Slow Fashion Consumer Behavior: a Literature Review’, Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 5, p. 2860.

Freberg, K, Graham, K, McGaughey, K & Freberg, LA 2011, ‘Who are the social media influencers? A study of public perceptions of personality’, Public Relations Review, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 90–92.

Last Chance for Animals n.d., ‘Last Chance for Animals - History of Fur Free Friday’, www.lcanimal.org, viewed 20 February 2024, <https://www.lcanimal.org/index.php/campaigns/fur/fur-trade-facts-2#:~:text=In%201985%2C%20two%20activist%20groups>.

POMP MMXIX 2023, ‘The History of Sustainable Fashion’, POMP MMXIX, viewed 20 February 2024, <https://pomp.store/blogs/journal/the-history-of-sustainable-fashion>.

Wissinger, EA 2015, ‘This Year’s Model: Fashion, Media, and the Making of Glamour’, JSTOR, NYU Press, viewed <https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt15zc744>.

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Week 5: What is Digital Citizenship and "Platformisation"?

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What is "Digital Citizenship"?

The term "Digital Citizenship" was defined as "the online display of behaviors that ensure legal, safe, ethical and responsible use of information and communication technologies." (Öztürk 2021).

Being a good digital citizen is very much similar to being a good citizen. You just mind your own business, do not cross any line laid down by the law, and finally do not do anything immoral that could cause harm to yourself or another individual/groups.

As we move more and more into the digital age, with everything gradually moving online, it is becoming increasingly important for individuals to understand their role in a digital society as digital citizens.

Platforms and "Platformisation"

The term "platform" can be understood under four different contexts, as highlighted by Tarleton Gillespie (2010):

-Computational: In a technical context, "platform" can simply be understood as an infrastructure that supports the design and use of particular applications.

-Architectural: In an architectural context, "platform" can be understood as a raised level surface on which people and things can stand.

-Figurative: Figuratively, "platform" can be understood as the ground or foundation / basis of an action, event, calculation,...

-Political: In a political context, "platform" was first used similarly to its architectural context, referring to the actual stage for a political candidate to address an audience. However, the term's definition eventually shifted from being a material construct to the beliefs being articulated.

"Platformisation", on the other hand, is deeply rooted in the political context of the original word. More specifically, the term "platformisation" describes a process, instead of a thing. Defined as "the penetration of ifrastructures, economic processes and governmental frameworks of digital platforms in different economic sectors and spheres of life, as well as the reorganisation of cultural practices and imaginations around these platforms." (Poell, Nieborg & van Dijck 2019).

Platformisation is a powerful tool, as it can give anyone the opportunity to shed a light on their ideologies and beliefs, especially political ones. However, it should be noted that this level of freedom can be used for harmful purposes, as platformisation is a process that everyone with a big enough following can go through, including those with less than positive beliefs.

References Öztürk, G 2021, ‘Digital citizenship and its teaching: A literature review’, Journal of Educational Technology & Online Learning, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 31.

Gillespie, T 2010, ‘The politics of “platforms”’, New Media & Society, vol. 12, no. 3, p. 349, viewed <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444809342738>.

Poell, T, Nieborg, D & van Dijck, J 2019, ‘Platformisation’, Internet Policy Review, vol. 8, no. 4, p. 1.

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Week 4: Reality T.V, and how one such show saved the U.F.C

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Reality T.V is probably one of the weirdest phenomena in the history of television.

Ever since T.Vs became a common household items all the way back in the late 1940s, broadcasters have been divided as to what should be the main purpose of the medium in regard to entertainment.

On one hand, some viewers want a break from reality, so they tune in to soap operas, Western epics or science fiction programs as a way to escape from the mundanity of life.

On the other hand, however, almost as a way to rebel against the norms set in place by the aforementioned fantastical and detached-from-reality shows, some people began to yearn for something more authentic, something that accurately portrays people instead of actors, something that can show Reality.

And thus, Reality T.V was born, as a genre of programming that documents purposely unscripted real life situations, starring real everyday folks instead of professional actors. While the genre's roots can be traced back to the late 1940s, with prank shows such as "Candid Camera" in 1948 finding a niche but dedicated fanbase, reality T.V got REALLY big in the early 2000s, with shows such as Big Brother and "Survivor" gaining widespread mainstream appeal.

Aside from its authentic nature, one of the key reasons why reality T.V took off was because they contain interactive elements, drawing a studio audience and/or viewers at home directly into the program, where they play the role of respondents or judges to the activities depicted on the show (Hill 2005, p. 21).

These interactions with audience members eventually led to these reality T.V shows forming their own digital publics, online groups and forums where fans of the shows come together to discuss things that happen on the programs.

Sometimes, when these digital publics gain enough traction, they have the power to influence the original show itself, or in some cases, even more than just the show.

One of my favorite example of this is "The Ultimate Fighter" (T.U.F), a reality T.V show with the purpose of scouting out new talents for the U.F.C, the leading mixed martial arts organization in the world.

A typical T.U.F episode has everything that makes reality T.V so appealing in the first place. From the personal interviews with candidates discussing their life story, to the various conflicts and rivalry between the coaches and members from the two opposing teams.

Before the show aired, the U.F.C was in a tough spot, with most investors walking away from what was deemed a sinking ship. They had one last shot, one opportunity to seize everything they ever wanted, and make a profit out of this insane sport that was still look at as "barbaric" and "human cockfighting".

Reality television is a genre that particularly lends itself to creating dramas and stories around a combat sports (McClearen 2017). While the fights certainly helped catapult T.U.F into mainstream appeal, it was the humanization of these tough and gritty fighters through the raw footage of them living and training together before every bout that ultimately captured the heart of viewers.

Online discussion surrounding the show eventually grew so popular that T.U.F became a success overnight, and with it came a flood of new fans, eager to watch more of this new M.M.A thing that everyone was talking about. The success of this reality T.V show also meant that for the first time in a few years, the U.F.C was a profitable venture, and investors became interested again (Rothstein 2020).

They would make a miraculous comeback afterwards, and fast forward to today, the U.F.C is now one of the biggest sports entity in the world.

References

Hill, A 2005, Reality Tv : Audiences and Popular Factual Television, Routledge, London ; Nueva York, p. 21.

McClearen, J 2017, ‘“We Are All Fighters”: The Transmedia Marketing of Difference in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC)’, International Journal of Communication, vol. 11, p. 3230.

Rothstein, M 2020, ‘The inside story of how “The Ultimate Fighter” saved the UFC 15 years ago’, ESPN, 9 April, viewed 25 January 2024, <https://www.espn.com/mma/story/_/id/29014001/the-story-how-ultimate-fighter-saved-ufc-15-years-ago>.

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Week 3: Digital Community and the public sphere

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So what even is a “Public Sphere”?

The public sphere was an idea originally developed by German philosopher Jürgen Habermas in his 1962 book “Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit. Untersuchungen zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft” (The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society).

Later, in 1964, he would define it simply as “a realm of our social life in which something approaching public opinion can be formed.“ (Habermas 1964).

In recent years, the concept of the public sphere has come into relevancy again, as some media professionals argue that the social media platforms of today can be classified as public spheres.

However, it is interesting to note that some scholars have also argued that the traditional model of the public sphere has been replaced with micro-publics or communities on social media (Bruns et al. 2016, pp. 56–73). These communities, ranging from Facebook groups to hashtag activisms and Tumblr blogs, dominate the majority of online discourse, as they offer a way for anyone to chime in regarding a certain topic, as well as connect with other people who share the same beliefs or interests.

Another interesting thing in regard to the public sphere and social media is that Habermas actually published a sort of sequel to his original work in 2022, appropriately titled "A New Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere and Deliberative Politics.” In this book, he discusses social media platforms in relation to his original concept.

One of the key points that I found most interesting while skimming through the work is that Habermas believes that while social media initially seems like a tool to empower users and let them contribute to the conversation in meaningful ways, this purpose is being undermined by the fact that most of these platforms are based on algorithms, making it so that the more you interact with other people on them. the more likely you will form an echo chamber around yourself, as users eventually fall into groups consisting of likeminded individuals who share their beliefs and values.

All in all, the concept of the public sphere is one that has been floating around the media studies field for a long time now, and even though it can be used as a lens through which one may examine social media, it is certainly not a perfect representation of these platforms, as each have their own unique culture and customs.

References

Habermas, J 1964, ‘The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964)’, New German Critique, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 49–55, viewed 17 January 2024, <https://www.jstor.org/stable/487737>.

Bruns, A, Enli, G, Skogerbø, E, Larsson, A & Christensen, C 2016, The Routledge companion to social media and politics, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, pp. 56–73.

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