twf2020

[twf2020]

What are the main threats to the leopard?

The Leopard ( Panthera pardus -Linnaeus, 1758) ,once found to be widely distributed in Asia and Africa are facing various threats amidst declining numbers. The carnivore is classified as ‘vulnerable’ according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020. It is also listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

So why is the leopard in danger?

The threats to leopards are mainly anthropogenic. There is evidence that, leopard populations have declined dramatically due to population growth, habitat fragmentation, increased illegal wildlife trade, the loss of prey and trophy hunting Across North, East and West Africa, the Middle East and East and South-East Asia, leopards are facing significant threats and regional extinctions due to the above mentioned factors.

Habitat fragmentation and Poaching are two biggest threats

Recent meta-analyses of leopard status and distribution suggest 48–67% range loss for the species in Africa and 83–87% in Asia (Jacobson et al. 2016).The human population increased by 2.57% per year between 1994 and 2014 (UN 2014), and the conversion of potential leopard habitat to agricultural areas increased by 57% between 1975 and 2000 (Brink and Eva 2009).

Conversion of forest land into palm oil and rubber plantations has increased in South east Asia and have further augmented the habitat loss.

In an attempt to feed the ever growing human population, forest habitats are being converted into farmlands. Farmers often blame leopards for loss of their livestock and often resort to retaliatory killings. Attempts to poison the carcass, use of snares, traps, electrocution are carried out to kill these predators.

Trophy Hunting is not helping the case of leopards

Trophy hunting is still legal in parts of Africa which has a negative impact on the density of big cats. Though there are laws pertaining to the age and sex of the leopards to be hunted for trophy many leopards are hunted outside protected areas. Captive breeding of big carnivores in private ranches also leads to a decrease in the number of prey animals for those leopards who are still in the wild.

Illegal hunting or poaching is also common in Africa and Asia. The skin and other body parts fetch a high price at international wildlife markets which make these animals susceptible to poaching. The skin of leopards are used by tribesmen in Africa and is also displayed as wall decor in many countries.

In one year 2020, in India around 23 dead bodies of leopards were found minus the skin and the claws. On further examination, trap marks and wound marks were also found on the bodies which signified unnatural cause of death.

It is well known that predator density depends on prey density (Carbone & Gittleman 2002, Karanth et al. 2004). Wild dogs kill prey and compete with large carnivores for food. Several studies show that eating habits have changed over the years. Feral dogs, pigs and goats have become the main prey for leopards living outside protected areas in India (Athreya et al., 2004).

Human-Leopard conflict has become more intense than ever

The rapid expansion of urban areas worldwide has been markedly increasing the frequency of encounters humans have with wildlife and large carnivores such as leopards being no exception. Especially in densely populated countries of Asia, where half of the world’s population reside, sometimes in close proximity to wildlife reserves, there is an intense competition over natural resources.

When there are incidents of large cats such as tigers and leopards injuring or killing humans, it evokes public outrage which obstructs conservation efforts. In India,recent media reports implicate the leopard as the most common carnivore in man — carnivore conflict. The major hotspots of man- leopard conflict in India are Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Due to habitat fragmentation, protected areas are unable to contain leopards, who have extensive home ranges and are likely to stray out. As a result they come in contact with human dominated landscapes and are prone to increased interactions with humans. Crops such as sugar cane, tea plantations and other tall crops are involved in providing an “ideal” habitat for the leopard, allowing it to wander at close proximity to humans.

Patterns of Human-Leopard Conflict

A study by Mizutani (1999) in Kenya found that losses due to leopard attacks on livestock differed in ranches devoid of wild prey compared to ranches with wild prey. It was also recommended that presence of a wild prey was a good strategy for reducing livestock predation.

A socio economic survey conducted in Junnar district of Maharashtra by Jhamvar-Shingote & Michael A. Schuett in 2013 showed both positive and negative opinions harbored by humans regarding the leopard. Some people who lived with the predator have become accustomed to the need for coexistence whilst people who had encountered livestock losses and personal attacks or mere sightings of the animal live in fear and prefer the big cat to be relocated away from their residence.

A study conducted by Naha D et al in Pauri Garhwal district in Uttarakhand highlights the negative perception of humans towards leopards.A total of 121 leopards were killed in this district either in retaliation by local communities or declared as man-eaters and shot with a range of 2–16 per year between 1990- 2005. Around 350 attacks of leopards were recorded in this period. The authors conducted a similar study in tea estates of North Bengal which showed a lesser number of leopard attacks or deaths.

They concluded leopard attacks are driven by many socio- ecological factors.

Given the close proximity with humans, an odd leopard may fall into a well, get trapped in wires, stray into an empty cattle shed, prey on livestock or may accidentally attack a human being. In the worst case it may get habitual to prey on cattle or humans. Such leopards are referred to as ‘man eaters’ in earlier days or ‘problem animals’ nowadays.

The Thing about “Problem Leopards”

Why do tigers, lions or leopards suddenly become man-eaters? Many behavioral studies have evolved around this question although there is no definitive answer.

There was a fearsome leopard that operated over a large territory of Garhwal from 1918 to 1926 who was known to have killed at least 125 humans ( or probably more). He was ultimately hunted by Jim Corbett and immortalized in his book ‘ The Man-Eating Leopard of Rudraprayag’

Researchers and conservationists have churned out various reasons from shrinking habitats to easy accessibility to prey for the leopards. Big cats preying on domestic livestock often find it easy to hunt them. Humans on other hand could be accidental or deliberate victims.

In her book ‘Crooked Cats’ — wildlife conservationist Nayanika Mathur has explored this question in detail through numerous interviews with victims, researchers and people living near the territory of big cats.

She further states “ Corbett, too, has argued that in the 1920s Himalayas there was a surge in man eating leopards, due to the non cremation of dead bodies after a cholera pandemic.” Dead bodies of those succumbing to cholera were dumped in nearby forests and leopards might have become accustomed to human flesh.

Leopards targeting livestock and humans often find themselves at the center of man-animal conflict and vulnerable to retaliatory killing. A management plan should be established for proper handling of these leopards and strict implementation should be closely monitored at the range office level. Such plans should balance both sides, threats and financial losses people face from predatory leopards and the endangered status of these animals.. Captive leopards not involved in human attacks should be released immediately before trespassers invade their territory.

Lack of Studies also an issue

Inadequate ecological information on Indian leopards along with social and political pressure often complicate the management of problem animals. Telemetric studies are essential for understanding the lifestyle of these secretive animals. It is essential to identify individual animals in conflict areas and areas which have potential for conflict. The Forest Departments must be in a position to identify if a trapped animal has had a history of livestock or human attacks.

However, this will require regular monitoring of the leopard population which can be done by DNA analysis of scats and leopard hair/tissue obtained from the site of attack. This is time consuming and in countries like India, requires a great deal of bureaucratic Intervention. Such cases are solved quickly by capturing and translocating the problem animal.

Political Interference as usual is problematic

Politicians and Bureaucrats often decide the fate of such captured animals. A letter from angry locals, a mob attack from locals on the forest department can quickly spin wheels into action before conservationists can confirm the identity of the animal. Social media often churns out fake messages which can influence the decision makers to act rapidly.

In one such example, an increased political interference had managed to win a hunting license from the Maharashtra government, which allowed known hunters from the official government certified board to be called on to try to capture a problem leopard.

Do translocations of problematic animals actually work?

Translocation is a process that involves capturing a perceived “problem animal” alive in the area of conflict and transporting it to another area where the animal is duly released. Often the captured animal lays in captivity throughout its entire life or if released in wild, again restores to preying upon livestock.

A problem leopard captured in Gujarat was translocated 30 km away and fitted with a radio collar. It was found to immediately return to its earlier territory and resume livestock depredation. Nevertheless, this practice still continues.

An important study was undertaken in Mumbai in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, (Athreya et al 2014) claims that the large peak of leopard attacks during 2002- 2004 was a direct outcome of the large-scale capture and release of leopards in and around this area.

Translocation of big cats for any reason involves trapping and caging which is a traumatic experience for these animals. As described by Naynika Mathur in her book, ‘Crooked Cats’ “The rough trapping experience, poor transportation facilities, and abysmal conditions of the cages in most of the rescue centers lead to injury, stress, and the deterioration of the animal’s health prior to its release” She also further explains how this hidden bureaucratic maneuvering is one stop solution for all ‘problem animals’ in India.

She further describes how during the legislative assembly elections in Uttarakhand in 2012, many leopards were captured and taken away from bigger towns so that the incumbent political party would not be blamed for such sightings. “ Sighting these big cats in a town or other such spaces that are considered non beastly is widely considered a damning failure of governance.”

Example of Human- Leopard co-existence in Mumbai

The city of Mumbai has sprawled across the Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), a protected forest area that continues to exist as a piece of paradise for wildlife, surrounded by the bustling growth of a megacity.

Over the past few decades, parts of SGNP and its surroundings have been diverted for different developmental projects. This has resulted in habitat fragmentation.

With the spread of human settlement along the margin of the forest area, there has not only been a rise in the number of people but also in domestic animals such as cats, dogs, and pigs, which are easy prey to the leopards ( Subramanian 2018). The improper disposal of waste around many human settlements attracts feral pigs and dogs, which make for easy prey for leopards.

According to a study conducted in 2018, there are 47 adult leopards and 8 cubs in SGNP (Ghai 2020).

Conclusion

However very few cases of conflict are reported from this area. The tribal living inside the park and those living outside have adapted themselves to live with the predators. A chance stroll in the late evening in this area, one can hear the roar of leopards intermingling with noises of loud T.V ‘s, loud chatter and busy hustling of human activities. The forest department conducts education and awareness programmers from time to time in this area. Effective garbage management and cleanliness has kept feral animals off the garbage dump which has lead to decrease in chances of leopards straying close to attack domestic animals.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Dr. Nupur Sawant

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on Jun

[twf2020]

Agro-biodiversity for food security in vulnerable landscapes: a case of Western Himalaya

The term biodiversity usually brings to mind a vivacious collage of animals in the backdrop of pristine wildernesses such as a courtship display by the birds of paradise in Papa New Guinea; the epic migration in the Serengeti; the boisterous howling of new world monkeys inhabiting Latin American rainforests; darting schools of iridescent fish in the Great Barrier Reefs and so on. However, most people are unaware of the role of agro-biodiversity.

Biodiversity doesn’t often bring to mind agricultural farms fielding an assortment of food crops, grains, vegetables, cereals and fruits. If it does, then you may pat yourself on the back because that is absolutely spot on! Variety amongst crops and vegetables also constitutes biodiversity and it plays a crucial role in sustaining farming livelihoods and supporting the food demands of the growing populace across the world.

Throughout history, the development of most food crops can be credited to ethnic communities who have carefully selected and cultivated diverse plant variants for consumption from wild plants over several generations. These wild plants have been gradually domesticated keeping in mind their suitability for cultivation across different soil types, climate patterns, nutritional benefits, and tastes.

Ethnobotanists studying the origin of crops have thus identified centres of agricultural diversity across the world namely, Central America; Latin America, mainly Ecuador, Peru and Chile; North Africa and the Mediterranean; Ethiopia and surrounding parts of East Africa; the Middle East; Eastern China; Southeast Asia; Penisular regions of the Indian subcontinent; and the Western Himalaya 1,2. These hotspots of agro-biodiversity have quite literally acted as gardens of Eden for humans to identify, isolate and breed cultivars of food crops throughout history.

Industrial Farming is reducing agro-biodiversity

However in the last century, to prioritize yield and generate surplus food to promote industrialization and rapid economic growth, food production systems have undergone a tremendous change towards intensive monocropping systems using genetically modified high-yielding varieties on large swathes of land that require capital-intensive inputs such as irrigation channels; mechanised tillage and harvesting; and fertiliser and pesticidal inputs.

This is reflected in the fact that although over 2,400 varieties of edible plants are known; about 20 or so dominate current agricultural land use and form the majority of human diet across the globe today 3. Such a tumultuous advancement in agricultural systems has been adopted throughout the world save for some remote regions such as the Western Ghats of India, the Satoyama landscapes in Japan, the Milpa cultivation systems in Mexico, traditional village systems in Eastern Europe and South-western China’s terrace landscapes 4. Here, traditional farming practices have remained the same or changed comparatively little over a long time.

Traditional agriculture in the Western Himalaya

Farming in the Western Himalaya too has been mostly shielded from such trends of agricultural modernization. This is because mountainous terrains are characterised by topographic constraints such as small landholdings, the unfeasibility of irrigational infrastructure, poor transport networks and lower soil productivity. Due to contiguous undulations, elevation changes rapidly over short aerial distances leading to greater variability in climate, edaphic profiles and the resultant vegetation.

Traditional farmers cultivating wheat and barley in Pithoragarh district, Uttarakhand.

Challenges of Mountainous Communities

Mountainous communities have long since adapted to these limitations by developing traditional agricultural systems and appropriate farming behaviours such as terrace/step cultivation of a diverse group of rain-fed, multipurpose, and native varieties aimed at sustenance-based livelihoods. Farmers here do not cultivate two or three crops aimed for commercial sale; rather they grow a diverse assortment of crops in mixed and inter-cropping systems.

This is due to poor access to markets which makes commerce difficult and so, farmers have to source different components of their diet from their farms directly. Another crucial adaptation is that they not only cultivate different native crops, but also diverse varieties of the same crop called landrace6.

Landraces are native varieties of a crop that have beneficial morphological and physiological traits such as crop height, inflorescence length, grain size, grain per inflorescence, maturation period, and taste. These landraces have been reared by the farmers through meticulous selective breeding of indigenous crops facilitated by proximity to their wild counterparts. They often have superior qualities such as resistance to disease; tolerance toward pests; resilience to environmental stresses; additional nutritional benefits; better taste; higher water use efficiency; and many more. They are also cultivated to be multipurpose such as supplementing fodder requirements for livestock in addition to providing grain.

https://open.spotify.com/episode/5xCrONxpCYs7c0jKk6RCZu?si=tBmVnPUKQx2E3DIINeo1OQ

The Agro-Biodiversity of the Western Himalayas

The Western Himalayan region is an agro-biodiversity hotspot and a vast diversity of crops are cultivated here, from standard cereals like wheat, rice, maize and barley; to pulses such as black gram, horse gram, lentil, black-eyes peas (no, it’s not just the name of a band); oilseeds such as sesame and mustard; pseudocereals such as amaranth, naked barley and buckwheat; an array of millets such as foxtail, barnyard, pearl and hog millets; and many more 7. This is in addition to numerous vegetables and fruits and one could go on listing them endlessly.

Even within crops, the diversity is bewildering from hundreds of landrace varieties amongst paddy (rice) alone! Similarly, there are dozens of landraces amongst wheat, finger millet, and maize recorded at present and there could be many more that have remained undocumented. The hundreds of varieties of paddy in the Western Himalayan region show diversity in land use such as variants suited to rain-fed or irrigated land.

Such variants could be of use in building climate-resilient varieties in water-stressed regions such as Marathwada in Central India. Variations amongst landraces also exist in scent, husk, kernel length, grain length, colour, and taste which could have important commercial implications. Some varieties also hold religious value being used as offerings while others have been bred by farmers to maximize fodder biomass by selecting varieties with longer shoots.

Variety is crucial

Similarly, there are paddy varieties with stalks containing high cellulose and protein but low lignin content to enrich the nutrient value and ease the digestibility of the dry stalk for use as fodder 7. Such adaptations are pivotal in a region where seasonal feed availability for livestock is limited and could alleviate such issues elsewhere.

Crop depredation by Rhesus macaques in Himalaya is a frequent source of conflict.

The Role of Millet Based Diets

The Himalayan region also has a rich history of traditional millet-based diets, both greater and small millets including foxtail, barnyard, hog and pearl millets. Millet crops cover a wider base of nutrition having relatively higher profiles of protein, Vitamin A, minerals, and fibre as compared to other cereals whilst also being resilient to climate variability as they have meagre water requirements 8.

They are more suited to organic farming and can give modest yet sustainable yields even during sustained dry periods or delayed rains. Their importance in addressing hidden hunger (micronutrient deficiency) amongst women and children has been greatly stressed by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) 9. The above examples underline the significance of crop and landrace diversification as a crucial strategy to sustain food security and self-sufficiency in resource-limited regions, particularly in the context of climate-influenced yield unpredictability.

Reasons for concern and the way forward

Unfortunately, traditional agricultural systems both in the Himalaya and elsewhere in the world are on a decline. The influence of globalisation and the allure of cash income has permeated into these remote regions as well. Concerns regarding the rising popularity of cash crops loom as they seem to have a direct consequence on the decline in native crop diversity and landraces.

A shift towards cash crop cultivation comprising of monocropping of potato, soybean and high-yielding varieties of rice and wheat will gradually dilute traditional crop diversity and their landraces. Unlike modern varieties, seeds for traditional landraces are borne out of previous years’ produce. Therefore, years of successful cultivation of modern varieties contribute towards the permanent extinction of landraces as farmers no longer have access to their viable seeds and there is a dearth of markets catering to their preservation.

Unpredictable Climates prove chaotic

High-yielding varieties also render the farmers more vulnerable to climate risk as hybrid varieties are at the mercy of climate predictability such as the cyclical onset of rains. Asynchrony between farm activities and weather either due to prolonged drought, excessive rainfall or change in their temporality often proves catastrophic to harvest.

And since the initial investment is higher, the consequences of crop failure are more devastating. Monocropping trends also put farmers’ food security at risk since they now have to depend on markets to fulfil their nutritional requirements. Declining agrobiodiversity also endangers the vigour of the overall crop genetic pool and leaves them at risk of new pest and pathogen attacks i.e. if the base gene pool of a crop is limited then there are fewer genetic mutations possible in turn leading to fewer new varieties that could potentially harbour resistances and tolerances.

Traditional step farms are being abandoned as people lose interest in agriculture.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Rishabh Srikar

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on June 5, 2023.

[twf2020]

Mangrove restoration and reforestation: the whys and the hows

Amidst the myriad of unique plant assemblages found around the world, perhaps none are as tenacious and resilient as mangroves. Mangrove is an umbrella term that groups all tree and shrub species depicting physiological adaptations to high salinity conditions and inhabiting tropical and sub-tropical inter-tidal zones. Mangrove restoration is currently gaining a lot of interest globally.

‘Adapt to salt water my friend’

Mangrove species, however, have developed several morphological adaptations to not only survive but thrive under these conditions 1. They have stilt roots akin to a banyan tree that not only extend support against the tidal forces but also act as extended breathing appendages during high and low tides. These roots have specifically adapted cellular pores called lenticels that allow for the ready diffusion of oxygen into the plant while also being hydrophobic, preventing salt water from entering the cells and dehydrating the tissues.

Apart from stilting, some roots also prop up from the ground like arrows and perform both photosynthesis as well as respiration as required by the plant and are called pneumatophores. Astonishingly, several mangrove species depict the animal-like trait called vivipary! This is the phenomenon in which the offspring begins development while still attached to the parent plant (as in humans). Besides this, they have several other adaptations including leaf succulence and ultrafiltration mechanisms to ensure the salt is selectively filtered out.

Genetics reveal that these fitness traits have independently arisen across fern, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons from initially non-mangrove species (convergent evolution). Only around 70 species of true mangroves, i.e. species that grow only in mangrove environments and do not extend into terrestrial plant communities, are found across the world.

But why do we need mangrove restoration?

They are your coast guards

As remarkable as these adaptations are, they aren’t the only characteristics that make mangrove forests special. Mangroves act as sentinels of our coastline by providing a buffer from tropical storms, cyclones and tsunamis. The roots slow the flow of water helping reduce soil erosion while their prop roots (stilts) act as filtration meshes for inorganic pollutants and harmful metals brought by rivers and streams and therefore let out clean water into the oceans.

They are your climate warriors

Mangroves are not only buffers against natural calamities but also of tremendous importance for mitigation and adaptation strategies in response to climate change. Globally, they have been modelled to sequester 21 gigatonnes of carbon which is remarkable considering they only comprise 0.1% of the terrestrial land cover 2! This is because of their numerous niche physiological traits such as the proliferation of succulent foliage and root systems mentioned above. This means that on average, mangroves are ten times more productive as carbon sinks than terrestrial forests.

What corals are to marine ecosystems, mangroves are to terrestrial ecosystems ?

The nutrient-rich sedimentary beds near the mangrove roots act as a micro-habitat for a blistering number of micro-invertebrates and aquatic flora such as fishes, crabs, sea snails, shellfish, and algae. These in turn through the food web support a vast array of wildlife and other associated plant species. Leaf falls from mangrove species help in nutrient provisioning for other mangroves as well as coral reefs.

Several molluscs and crustaceans including sessile barnacles and mussels find refuge amongst the mangrove prop roots from rapid tidal waves. The soft mud banks in mangrove ecosystems also provided burrowing habitats for mudskippers and crabs and nesting habitats for sea turtles. Numerous lizard species and saltwater crocodiles also prefer the mangrove habitat as it offers them plenty of predation opportunities. Mangroves also provided nesting grounds for thousands of migratory birds from across the globe.

Estimates suggest that mangroves are refuges of 341 threatened species across the world! The Sundarbans, the largest contiguous stretch of mangroves in the world spread between India and Bangladesh, alone are home to over 42 mammal species, 35 species of reptiles, 300 species of birds, 250 species of fish, and over 350 species of vascular plants besides innumerous phytoplankton, fungi, bacteria, zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, molluscs, and amphibians.

Human livelihoods are inextricably linked to mangroves

Mangroves also support human societies, for example, Sunderbans is one the most population-dense regions in the world. These forests are named so because of the dominance of a mangrove species called the Sundari tree ( Hereteria formes).Communities here are dependent on several species for charcoal, fuelwood, fodder, thatch for home-building, wildlife, fish, medicines, tannins and many more products. For example, Sonneratia alba also called mangrove apple and Nypa fruticans are widely harvested mangrove species.

Mangrove honey collected by the Moulis in the Sunderbans, also called blood honey because of the number of lives lost to man-eating tigers during collection, holds a plethora of medicinal advantages over regular honey 3. Several forest-dwelling communities such as the Australian Aborigines eat the fruit of mangrove trees after removing harmful tannins from the fruits by soaking them in mangrove mud for three to seven days. In Tamil Nadu in India, the chemical extracts of a mangrove species called the Thillai tree ( Excoecaria agallocha) are believed to treat leprosy!

As with many other ecosystems, mangroves are under severe pressures

Despite such a vast array of ecosystem services provisioned by mangroves, they are amongst the most threatened ecosystems. At the turn of the millennium it was discerned that global mangrove cover had shrunk by half compared to its pre-industrial range and the remaining showed alarming signs of degradation.

The reasons for mangrove loss are multifarious but can be broadly attributed to shrimp farming which requires the conversion of mangrove swamps to embanked ponds; sea level and temperature rise driven by climate change resulting in their habitat shrinkage as year-by-year lowland coastal areas are submerged; conversion of forests to agricultural land especially for paddy cultivation; coastal development for ports and tourism; and over-harvesting of forest produce such as fuelwood, fodder and fruiting species.

But what is the process of Mangrove Restoration?

In lieu of severe threats to mangroves amidst the pivotal role they play in sustaining biodiversity, natural resources and human livelihoods, great emphasis has been put on mangrove reforestation. Large tracts of land are being managed for mangrove plantation and assisted natural regeneration. These include the direct plantation of mangrove species and/or improving eco-hydrological conditions in estuarine zones that supplement mangrove regrowth.

Plantation drives consist of raising suitable species in nurseries from seedling to sapling stage followed by replantation on suitable mud banks. Seedlings are collected naturally i.e. seedlings dispersed by sea water instead of directly being harvested from trees using the mangroves’ natural seedling germination characteristics (vivipary). Species selection is of particular significance as successful survival rates are determined by choosing species keeping in mind their salinity requirements, days of inundation, and natural habitat zonation.

Species matter a lot in Mangrove Restoration

Mangrove species depict characteristic zonation (species adapted to lowland, midland or upland areas) and have differential thresholds for salinity. Plantation drives must only use the species native to nearby ecosystems and references are usually drawn from nearby tracts of natural undisturbed mangrove forms. Plantations must also consider the days in a month the area experiences inundation by seawater.

These are determined by the level of seawater during spring and neap tides, with usually lowland areas during neap tides considered as the lowest topographic threshold for plantation. The most successful restoration case studies attempt to emulate natural ecosystems. Furthermore, the restoration area must be surveyed beforehand for disturbances both natural (invasive species, erosion, embankment damage by cyclones) and anthropogenic (vicinity to grazing, agriculture and shrimp farms) and the local communities must be involved in their protection and management activities through educational outreach ensuring benefits are shared with the concerned stakeholders.

Besides nursery plantations, sometimes mangrove reforestation also includes direct seedling plantation when adequate skilled labour and/or infrastructure restraints don’t permit nurseries. In the state of Gujarat on the Western coastline of India, the topography along the coasts doesn’t depict a gradual slope but rather abrupt rocky undulations that give way to strong intertidal currents which damage seedlings and saplings. In such cases a local technique called the Otla raised bed method is used in which saplings are planted on earthen mounts raised to 10–15 cm in an alternating triangular pattern to reduce to ebb and flow of currents 4.

The Role of Hydrological Conditions in Mangrove Restoration

Hydrological conditions play a tremendous role in mangrove growth and coupled with the incredible resilience displayed by mangrove species, more attention is being drawn to reestablishing the eco-hydrological conditions supporting mangrove species rather than direct plantations. This is called assisted natural regeneration wherein the focus of restoration is on establishing environmental conditions conducive to natural regrowth rather than plantations.

It has been widely observed that provided the hydrological conditions are appropriate (frequency, duration and level of inundation by sea water) and disturbances are kept to a minimum, mangroves show a remarkable ability to regenerate by themselves without requiring plantation! The most successful mangrove reforestation efforts put a greater emphasis on the latter, improving conditions of sustained inundation on gradually sloping mud banks in coastal backwaters to support natural regeneration rather than direct interventions through plantations. This allows mangroves to develop their natural species composition which is often more diverse than plantations of 2–3 successful species, resulting in a wider array of ecosystem services and species richness.

What about the fishbone channel?

The fishbone channel intervention utilised by the forest departments along the Kaveri and Godavari estuaries in southern India is a prime example of assisting natural regeneration 5. The mangroves here were hampered in their regeneration because of poor inundation (some areas were over-inundated during high tide and others were cordoned off from inundation due to local geology). Channels were dug akin to a boney fish’s skeleton to ensure that seawater gradually inundated these mangrove sites leading to vastly improved restoration results.

Such instances of naturally assisted regeneration are favoured as they offer sustainability in the long run. These mangrove congregations upon establishment tend to be far more resilient to disturbances than artificially planted forests. Many reports cite a complete recovery in 3–5 years if restoration sites are monitored and protected well. These insights shed light on how nature can recover quickly on its own without too much human intervention if sound ecological principles are applied rather than forcing human-engineered mono-plantations in desperation for quick results.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Rishabh Srikar

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on June 3, 2023.

[twf2020]

What is driving human-leopard conflict in India?

Indian leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) are a subspecies of leopard found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and parts of Pakistan. They are medium-sized big cats with a distinctive coat pattern of rosettes and spots, which provides excellent camouflage in their natural habitat. Indian leopards are highly adaptable and can thrive in a variety of ecosystems, from tropical forests to arid regions. They are apex predators and play a crucial role in maintaining the ecological balance of their habitat. Unfortunately they are suffering from human-leopard conflict.

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

The loss and fragmentation of natural habitats are significant factors contributing to human-leopard conflict in India. With the rapid expansion of human populations, natural habitats are being destroyed to make way for human settlements, agriculture, and infrastructure. This forces leopards to move out of their natural habitats in search of food and water, often leading them to come into contact with humans.

Decreasing Prey Populations

Leopards rely on natural prey such as deer, wild boar, and monkeys for their survival. However, with the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats, the availability of natural prey has decreased. This has led leopards to venture into human settlements in search of food, making them more vulnerable to conflict with humans.

Illegal Wildlife Trade

The illegal wildlife trade is a significant factor contributing to human-leopard conflict in India. Leopards are hunted for their skin, bones, and other body parts, which are in high demand in traditional medicine and fashion industries. This creates a significant incentive for poaching, and as a result, leopard populations are declining rapidly.

Lack of Awareness and Education

Lack of awareness and education about leopards and their behavior is also a significant factor contributing to human-leopard conflict in India. Many people are not aware of the potential dangers of encountering a leopard, nor do they know how to respond to a leopard sighting. Additionally, people living in close proximity to leopard habitats often lack the knowledge and resources to secure their homes and livestock from leopard predation.

Increasing Human Populations

With the rapid expansion of human populations, natural habitats are being destroyed at an alarming rate. This is leading to an increased likelihood of leopards coming into contact with humans, as their habitats are being encroached upon by human settlements. Additionally, as human populations increase, the availability of natural prey declines, leading to an increased likelihood of leopards preying on domestic animals.

Retaliation Against Leopards

In some cases, conflicts between humans and leopards turn violent, with people retaliating against leopards that have killed their livestock or pets. This can further exacerbate human-leopard conflicts, as it creates a cycle of retaliation and violence.

Lack of Effective Management and Enforcement

Lack of effective management and enforcement of laws and regulations related to wildlife conservation is also a significant factor contributing to human-leopard conflict in India. Wildlife conservation efforts are often underfunded and understaffed, making it challenging to implement and enforce laws effectively.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Aryan Patel

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on May 30, 2023.

[twf2020]

Threats and Conservation of the Nilgiri Tahr

The mist-clad peaks of the Western Ghats in southern India conceal a magnificent creature, adapted perfectly to its rugged terrain. With its thick woolly coat, curved horns, and piercing gaze, the Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) exudes an air of regal nobility. But beneath its imposing exterior lies a vulnerable species facing multiple threats to its survival. The Nilgiri tahr’s story is one of resilience in the face of adversity, of a species that has managed to survive against the odds, but which now needs our help if it is to continue to grace the high slopes of the Western Ghats with its majestic presence.

Threats to the Nilgiri Tahr

Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat facing the Nilgiri tahr. The Western Ghats, which are designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, are under increasing pressure from human activities such as agriculture, mining, and dam construction. As human populations grow and expand into the high-altitude areas that the tahr calls home, their habitat is being fragmented and destroyed, making it difficult for the species to find suitable areas to live and breed.

Poaching and hunting are also significant threats to the Nilgiri tahr. The species is highly valued for its meat, skin, and horns, which are used in traditional medicines. While hunting is prohibited by law, poaching continues to be a major problem, with some hunters resorting to illegal means to trap and kill the animals.

Another major threat to the Nilgiri tahr is the spread of invasive species, particularly the aggressive plant Lantana camara, which has invaded large areas of the Western Ghats. This invasive species outcompetes native vegetation, reducing the availability of food and shelter for the tahr and other wildlife species.

Climate change is also a growing concern for the Nilgiri tahr. With the temperature and rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats changing rapidly, the tahr’s habitat is becoming increasingly unpredictable and difficult to predict. This makes it more challenging for the species to find sufficient food and water, and could ultimately result in declines in population size.

Nilgiri tahr is also threatened by human-wildlife conflict. As human populations continue to expand into the tahr’s habitat, there is an increasing likelihood of conflicts arising between humans and the animals. This can result in the killing of tahr by people seeking to protect their crops or livestock.

The Habitat of the Nilgiri Tahr

Nilgiri Tahr prefer open grasslands and shrublands, and are typically found at elevations between 1200 and 2600 meters. The Nilgiri tahr is a herbivorous species, feeding mainly on grasses, shrubs, and other vegetation found in its habitat. The species is found in several protected areas throughout the Western Ghats, including the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Silent Valley National Park, and Eravikulam National Park. Despite ongoing threats to its habitat, the Nilgiri tahr remains a symbol of resilience and adaptability in the face of environmental challenges.

Conservation Efforts

One of the key conservation efforts for the Nilgiri tahr is the establishment of protected areas throughout its range. These protected areas, such as Eravikulam National Park and the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, provide a safe haven for the tahr and other threatened species. The protected areas also help to reduce human-wildlife conflicts by limiting human encroachment into the tahr’s habitat.

Another important conservation measure is habitat restoration. Efforts to restore degraded habitat, such as through the removal of invasive plant species, can help to improve the quality of the tahr’s habitat and increase its availability. This has the added benefit of improving the habitat for other wildlife species as well.

Conservation breeding programs have also been established to help bolster the population of the Nilgiri tahr. These programs involve captive breeding and release of animals into the wild, with the aim of increasing the genetic diversity of the population and creating new populations in areas where the species has become locally extinct.

In addition to these measures, public education and awareness campaigns are also important for the conservation of the Nilgiri tahr. These campaigns help to raise awareness of the importance of conserving this unique species and its habitat, and encourage the public to take actions to reduce their impact on the environment.

Finally, effective law enforcement is crucial for the conservation of the Nilgiri tahr. Poaching and hunting are major threats to the species, and stringent enforcement of laws and regulations can help to reduce these activities. It is also important to address the underlying socio-economic factors that drive poaching and hunting, such as poverty and lack of alternative livelihoods.

Effectiveness of conservation measures for Nilgiri tahr

One successful conservation measure has been the establishment of protected areas throughout the tahr’s range. Eravikulam National Park, for example, has seen a steady increase in the tahr population since the park’s establishment in 1978. According to a study published in the journal Tropical Conservation Science in 2019, the population of the Nilgiri tahr in Eravikulam National Park increased from 640 in 1989 to 931 in 2012, a 45% increase. The study attributes this increase to the protection provided by the national park, which has limited human activities such as grazing, logging, and hunting.

Another conservation measure that has been successful is habitat restoration. A study published in the Journal of Mountain Science in 2017 found that restoration of degraded grasslands in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve resulted in an increase in the density of tahr populations. The study found that the density of tahr populations increased from 0.66 individuals per hectare in degraded grasslands to 1.62 individuals per hectare in restored grasslands.

Conservation Breeding Programs to the rescue!

Conservation breeding programs have also been successful in increasing the population of the Nilgiri tahr. The captive breeding program at the Rajiv Gandhi National Park in Karnataka, for example, has successfully released captive-bred tahr into the wild, resulting in an increase in the wild population. According to a study published in the Journal of Threatened Taxa in 2016, the population of the Nilgiri tahr in the park increased from 105 in 1989 to 432 in 2013, a 312% increase. The study attributes this increase to the successful captive breeding program and the release of captive-bred tahr into the wild.

In addition to these measures, public education and awareness campaigns have played a role in the success of conservation efforts. According to a study published in the journal Environmental Management in 2014, public awareness campaigns in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve led to a reduction in poaching of the Nilgiri tahr. The study found that the number of poaching incidents decreased from 25 in 2007 to 5 in 2010, a 80% decrease.

Ecological role of Nilgiri tahr in their habitat

These animals are important ecologically as they play a vital role in maintaining the health of their habitat. The ecological role of the Nilgiri tahr is multifaceted, ranging from seed dispersal to maintaining the balance of herbivores in the ecosystem.

One of the key roles of the Nilgiri tahr is seed dispersal. These animals feed on the leaves and fruits of a variety of plant species, and as they move around, they deposit the undigested seeds in their droppings, thereby helping to distribute these seeds throughout their habitat. This helps to maintain the diversity of plant species in the area, which in turn supports a variety of other animal species.

In addition to their role in seed dispersal, Nilgiri tahr also play an important role in maintaining the balance of herbivores in the ecosystem. They compete with other herbivores, such as sambar deer and gaur, for food resources. This competition helps to ensure that no one species becomes dominant, which can have negative effects on the overall health of the ecosystem.

Moreover, the grazing habits of the Nilgiri tahr are also important for the maintenance of the ecosystem. These animals tend to feed on the younger leaves of plants, which stimulates the growth of new shoots and leaves. This helps to maintain the overall health of the plant population, which in turn supports a variety of other animal species.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Aryan Patel

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on May 28, 2023.

[twf2020]

Human-Wildlife Conflict on the rise in Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand is a state in northern India, sitting in the lap of mighty Himalayas. It is known for its rich natural resources, picturesque landscapes, various Hindu pilgrimage sites and enormous biodiversity. The total area of the state is 53, 483 sq. km, 65% of which is covered by forests. Hence, it is home to a large population of wildlife, including tigers, elephants, leopards, and bears, sharing space with humans. Consequently, it has constantly been grappling with the issue of human-wildlife conflict.

The conflict has led to casualties both on the sides of civilians as well as wild animals. According to the state-forest department data, about 1396 leopards died in Uttarakhand from 2000–2020. In the same period, around 500 people lost their lives to leopard attacks.

Causes of Human-Wildlife Conflict in Uttarakhand

Shrinking habitat: The primary cause of human-wildlife conflict in Uttarakhand is the shrinking habitat of wildlife due to human activities. Continuous changes in forest cover and anthropogenic pressures are forcing large groups of animals to venture into landscapes outside the reserve forest. As the human population and development increases, forests are being cleared for agriculture, infrastructure, and urbanization. This has resulted in fragmentation of habitats and the isolation of wildlife populations. This loss of habitat has forced animals to venture out into human settlements in search of food and shelter, leading to conflict situations.

Illegal wildlife trade:According to a TRAFFIC study entitled, “Illuminating the Blind Spot: A study on illegal trade in Leopard parts in India”, as many as four leopards a week have been poached for the last ten years in India, predominantly for their skin.Uttarakhand alone accounted for a whopping 20% of these poaching incidents. Most of these illegal wildlife products are smuggled to nearby Asian countries like Myanmar, Laos and China.

The changing weather patterns and climate change: Natural disasters like droughts, floods, forest fires, exaggerated by the climate change crisis, harm the natural wildlife populations of the area. Since 2000, when the state was carved out of the existing Uttar Pradesh, 54,800 hectares of forest cover has been destroyed by wildfires in Uttarakhand. Because of destruction of their natural habitats, animals have begun to move into semi-urban and urban areas in quest of food and shelter.

Consequences of Human-Wildlife Conflict

Human-wildlife conflict has severe consequences for both humans and wildlife. According to a report published by Titli Trust, in 2021–22, “Not a single month passes in Uttarakhand when incidents of attack by leopards, tigers, elephants, or other wildlife animals are not reported. Leopard attacks top the list and are the most severe.”

On the one hand, it poses a threat to the safety and lives of people living in areas adjacent to forests. Wildlife can attack humans, resulting in injuries or fatalities. In addition, animals can damage crops and property, leading to economic losses for the people.

On the other hand, it also threatens the survival of wildlife. With increasing conflict situations, animals are often hunted, trapped, or poisoned, leading to a decline in their population. This, in turn, affects the ecosystem, as the loss of a species can have a cascading effect on the food chain and the balance of the ecosystem.

Steps Taken to Address Human-Wildlife Conflict

The government of Uttarakhand has taken several steps to address the issue of human-wildlife conflict. One of the primary steps has been the establishment of protected areas, such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, to conserve wildlife habitats. The state has 12 national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, covering an area of 13,800 square kilometers. Moreover, connecting protected areas through wildlife corridors is critical.

Another step has been the development of eco-tourism and community-based conservation programs. Since 2011, the Uttarakhand forest department has been working with NGOs, namely Titli Trust and Wildlife Conservation Society- India (WCS-India) in order to reduce human-wildlife conflict. These programs aim to involve local communities in conservation efforts and provide them with economic benefits. By involving communities, these programs not only create a sense of ownership but also help in reducing conflict situations. One of the programms launched by the government is “The Living with Leopards programme” or “guldar ki dagdiya” as it has been renamed in Uttarakhand.

The Living with Leopards Programme

It was originally initiated by the Maharashtra forest department in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, where it turned out to be a huge success.

Sanjay Sodhi, the founder of the Titli Trust describe the programme as follows, “Under the ‘Living with Leopards’ programme, primary response teams were formed at the village level, which used to give us information about the appearances of leopards in an area and report instances of leopard attacks. A rapid response team comprising officers and employees of forest departments, veterinary doctors, and forest guards was formed. This team was trained and provided with all the necessary equipment. Along with this, awareness drives were conducted and people were told to carry out certain tasks, including cleaning up the bushes and keeping their homes well lit. They were also told to walk in groups while venturing into forest areas.”

The program has shown good results in some districts in Uttarakhand, with the leopard attacks decreasing significantly. Unfortunately, it failed to show any improvement in other districts. Some of the challenges in these areas are lack of resources and human resources as well as lack of interest by the forest department officials in tackling the issues.

Other steps being taken by the government to mitigate the conflict situation are:

Solar fencing, construction of anti-wildlife walls and elephant-proof trenches around villages to prevent wildlife from entering human settlements.

Water conservation

Eradication of wild bushes like lantana, and

Installation of solar lights.

Compensation Schemes

In addition, compensation schemes have been implemented for those who suffer losses due to conflict situations. Recently at the 18th meeting of the Uttarakhand State Wildlife Board, chaired by Chief Minister Pushkar Singh Dhami, the government announced to increase the compensation amount given to the family members of those killed by wild animals, from INR 4 lakh to INR 6 lakhs. People who are seriously injured in human-wildlife conflicts will be given INR 1 lakh, as opposed to INR 50,000 previously. This increment was done in sight of the recent increase in the incidents of human-wildlife conflicts in the state.

Conclusion

The state of Uttarakhand is a paradise for nature lovers. It also has an important role to play in the conservation of flora and fauna. At the same time, man-animal conflict is a growing concern in the state. It is a complex issue that requires urgent attention, as it not only affects the livelihoods and safety of the people but also threatens the survival of wildlife. Hence, effective long-term strategies need to be devised and implemented to safeguard both humans and wildlife in the state.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Ankit Dhoundiyal

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on May 26, 2023.

[twf2020]

Uncovering the unique Biodiversity of Gujarat — The Rann ecosystem

Gujarat is a state in western India. It is well known for its vibrant culture and rich history. However, it is also home to some of the most interesting ecosystems in the world. Gujarat has a very unique biodiversity ecosystem known as the Rann. This region consists of The Rann (Salt Marshes ecosystem), Greater Rann of Kachchh (GRK) and Little Rann of Kachchh (LRK).

Unfortunately, the Rann ecosystem of Gujarat is often overlooked. Moreover, these ecosystems are characterized by saline marshes, deserts and other extreme environmental conditions. Yet beneath the seemingly lifeless landscape lies an amazing treasure of unique and fascinating species that have adapted to the harsh conditions of this saline ecosystem. Therefore, let’s explore the rich biodiversity of Kutch’s salt marshes and the importance of protecting this fragile environment.

Migratory Flamingo and other birds

One of the most notable species found in Kutch’s salt marshes is the flamingo. Spotting these birds is a spectacle, with thousands of them flocking to this area during the winter months to breed & feed. The salt marshes provide an ideal habitat for these birds. This is because they are rich in the small crustaceans and algae that form the flamingos’ primary food source.

Moreover, the region is also home to a diverse array of wading birds like sandpipers, plovers and herons. These birds have adapted to the saline environment by developing specialized salt glands. Specifically, these enable them to excrete excess salt & maintain their internal water balance. The Rann is also home to various species of bustards.

Indian Wild Ass

What is the vegetation found in the Rann?

The vegetation in the Rann ecosystem is also unique and diverse. The GRK has a mangrove belt that includes species such as Avicennia marina and Aegiceras corniculatum. The salt-tolerant vegetation in the Rann includes species such as Salvadora oleoides, Prosopis juliflora, and Tamarix aphylla. The LRK has a large number of Prosopis juliflora trees, which provide shelter and food for several species of birds and animals. Unfortunately, various poorly planned plantation drives have led to the spread of invasive flora.

Aquatic Animals

One of the most unique & fascinating semi aquatic animal here is the mudskipper — a fish that has adapted to life on land. This fish is a strange-looking creature which is able to breathe air through the skin and can move around on land using the pectoral fins. The fiddler crab is another interesting animal found here. These crabs are small colorful crabs with oversized claw on one side of their body. They use them for communication, attracting mates and defending their territory. Fiddler crabs are highly adapted to life in the intertidal zone where they feed on algae & detritus and bury themselves in the mud to avoid predators.

Threat to the salt marshes of Rann

Despite the rich biodiversity of these salt marshes, this fragile ecosystem is under severe threat, majorly from a variety of human activities. One of the biggest threats is the extraction of salt from these marshes. It can disrupt the delicate balance of the ecosystem & destroy the habitats of many wonderful species. Pollution and habitat destruction from human settlements and industries are also major threats to the ecosystem.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Ram Dayal Vaishnav

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on May 24, 2023.

[twf2020]

The History of the Panna Tiger Reserve Controversary

Panna Tiger Reserve, located in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India, was once known for its rich wildlife and thriving tiger population. The park spanned over 500 sq. km of the Vindhya Range, and it was home to numerous rare and endangered species of animals, including tigers, leopards, sloth bears, Indian wolves, and various species of deer.

However, over the past decade, the park’s tiger population had been declining rapidly due to poaching, habitat destruction, and human-wildlife conflict. The most shocking incident took place in 2009 when all the tigers were killed by poachers.

Reasons for the Decline of Tigers in Panna Tiger Reserve

The Panna Tiger Reserve was once home to over 30 tigers in 2002. However, by 2008, the number had decreased to just 18 tigers. The sudden decline in the tiger population was primarily due to poaching, which was driven by the high demand for tiger parts in the illegal wildlife trade.

Tiger bones, skins, and other body parts are in high demand in traditional Chinese medicine and as status symbols. Despite the international ban on tiger trade, the black market for tiger parts remained active and flourishing, leading to the continued poaching of tigers.

Another significant factor contributing to the decline of tigers in the Panna Tiger Reserve was habitat destruction. The expansion of human settlements, agriculture, and infrastructure led to the destruction and fragmentation of the tigers’ habitat, reducing their prey base and making them more vulnerable to poaching.

The Impact of Panna Tiger Project

In 2009, the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) declared that the entire tiger population in the Panna Tiger Reserve had been wiped out due to poaching. The news was a severe blow to the conservation community, but it also spurred action to restore the tiger population.

The Panna Tiger Project was launched in 2009, with the aim of reintroducing tigers into the park and rebuilding their population. The project was implemented with the support of the Indian government, the Wildlife Trust of India, and various other organizations.

Panna Tiger Reserve was restored to former glory

The project included several measures, such as the relocation of villages from the park’s core area, habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, and the reintroduction of tigers from other reserves. The relocation of villages from the core area was an essential component of the project as it reduced the pressure on the tigers’ habitat and reduced human-wildlife conflicts. The villagers were relocated to nearby areas outside the park, and compensation was provided for their loss of livelihood.

Anti-poaching measures were also strengthened, with the deployment of additional forest guards, the use of drones for surveillance, and the establishment of a rapid response team. The project also involved the training of local communities in wildlife conservation, making them active partners in the project’s success.

Habitat restoration was another crucial aspect of the project. The park’s vegetation was restored by planting native species of trees and grasses, providing a suitable habitat for the tigers and their prey. The project also focused on water conservation measures, such as the construction of check dams and waterholes.

The reintroduction of tigers was the most crucial aspect of the project. Two male tigers were brought from the nearby Kanha Tiger Reserve in 2009 and released into the Panna Tiger Reserve. They were closely monitored and provided with a suitable habitat, including a prey base. Over the years, the tiger population in the park gradually increased, and by 2020, the park had 48 tigers, a remarkable turnaround from the zero population in 2009.

The Impact of the Panna Tiger Project on the Local Community

The Panna Tiger Project not only had a positive impact on the tiger population but also on the local community. The project’s emphasis on habitat restoration and water conservation measures improved the livelihoods of the local community.

The project also provided employment opportunities to the local people in the form of forest guards, ecotourism guides, and other related jobs. The project’s success also brought more tourists to the park, creating a ripple effect of economic development in the region.

The project also involved the training of local communities in wildlife conservation, making them active partners in the project’s success. This approach created a sense of ownership and responsibility among the local people towards the park’s conservation, leading to a reduction in human-wildlife conflicts.

The Success of the Panna Tiger Project

The Panna Tiger Project’s success is a testament to the power of collective action and the effectiveness of science-based conservation efforts. The project’s multi-pronged approach, which included habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, and the reintroduction of tigers, was instrumental in rebuilding the tiger population in the Panna Tiger Reserve.

The project’s success was due to the involvement of various stakeholders, including the government, NGOs, and the local community. The project’s emphasis on community participation and ownership was a game-changer in the conservation landscape, making the project sustainable and effective in the long run.

The Panna Tiger Project’s success also highlights the need for a more significant investment in wildlife conservation efforts. It is essential to address the root causes of wildlife decline, such as habitat destruction, poaching, and human-wildlife conflicts, to prevent further loss of biodiversity.

One of the most important factors behind the success of the project was the involvement of local communities.

The project was designed to not only benefit tigers but also to improve the livelihoods of local communities living in and around the Panna National Park. The project team worked closely with these communities to identify and address their concerns, providing them with alternative sources of income and better facilities such as health clinics and schools. This helped to create a sense of ownership among the locals towards the project, and they became active partners in conservation efforts.

Innovative Conservation at Panna Tiger Reserve

Another key factor that contributed to the success of the Panna Tiger Project was the use of modern technology. The park management used advanced technology such as satellite tracking, camera traps, and drones to monitor the movements of tigers and to gather information about their behavior. This helped them to identify and address any issues that could potentially threaten the tiger population, such as poaching or habitat destruction. The use of technology also helped park management to understand the needs of tigers and to develop strategies to protect them better.

The Panna Tiger Project was also successful because of the innovative conservation strategies used by the park management. For example, they used radio collars to track tigers and identify their preferred habitats. Based on this information, they developed a program to restore the degraded habitats and create new ones. This helped to increase the availability of prey for tigers, which in turn increased their chances of survival.

Another innovative strategy used by the project was the relocation of villages from inside the park to outside. This helped to reduce human-wildlife conflict and create more space for tigers to roam freely. The villagers were provided with alternative land and livelihood options outside the park, which helped to reduce their dependence on the park’s resources.

Stupendous Management at Panna Tiger Reserve

The success of the Panna Tiger Project can also be attributed to the effective management of the park. The park management team was dedicated to ensuring the safety of tigers and to creating a suitable habitat for them to thrive. They worked tirelessly to eliminate poaching, and the park was constantly monitored to ensure that no illegal activities were taking place. The management team also worked closely with other organizations and government agencies to coordinate conservation efforts.

In addition, the Panna Tiger Project was successful because of the support it received from the government. The Indian government provided the necessary funding for the project and also provided logistical support. This helped to ensure that the project was carried out smoothly and effectively.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Mohammed Thanvir

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on May 22, 2023.

[twf2020]

Why are grasslands in India dying?

India is not just the land of jungles but a country supporting a huge variety of geological and geographical terrains. From the rainforests of the Western Ghats to the arid deserts of Thar, from the Mangroves of Sundarbans to the snowy hills of the mighty Himalayas. But one of the habitats that rather goes unnoticed among these are the grasslands of India.

Grasslands in India are broadly differentiated into three types — the wet grassland, the montane grasslands and the dry-arid grasslands. All three of these are extremely rich in biodiversity and are home to few of the most endangered species in the world.

Where are these habitats found?

Montane grasslands such as the Sholas in Western Ghats is home to one of the incredibly rare ungulates- the Nilgiri Tahr along with few of the bird species that aren’t found anywhere in the world. The wet grassland is a special habitat of northern India lying below the Himalayas which supports the mighty One-Horned Rhinoceros, the Hog deer, the Swamp deer and the elusive Bengal Florican which is critically endangered now. The dry-arid grasslands are the most abundant grasslands in India present in the states of Gujrat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and a few parts of the Deccan plateau.

Importance of Grasslands

Grasslands are far from being just a barren land with no ecological significance. In fact, they offer a range of economic, environmental, and ecological benefits. They serve as grazing land for livestock and domestic cattle, playing a vital role in the livelihood of shepherds and cattle rearers. Additionally, they act as a carbon sink, effectively reducing greenhouse gases. Despite appearing lifeless at a glance, a closer look reveals a thriving ecosystem of diverse flora and fauna.

These grasslands form a complex ecosystem with a healthy population of insects such as beetles, bees, and other crop pollinators. Any disturbance to the savannas can hinder these insects’ ecological functions, resulting in reduced crop yields.

The Indian grasslands support a wide array of admirable species. They are home to critically endangered species such as Blackbuck, Chinkara, Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican, and endangered species like Indian wolf and Striped Hyena, alongwith other common species such as Nilgai, Jackals, Mongoose, Civets, and Foxes.

Destruction of these biodiverse habitats

Destruction of the grassland cannot be pointed to just a single reason, a wide range of factors plays a part in this. Habitat destruction by humans is one of main reasons, given that grasslands are still seen as wastelands, these areas are often converted into farmland or industrial areas due to their flat terrain, leading to a reduction in their overall area.

The construction of wind and solar power plants in the habitat of the Great Indian Bustard has had a detrimental impact on the species, as they are low-flying birds with poor eyesight and are prone to colliding with power lines. This has resulted in numerous deaths, and despite the fact that the species is on the brink of extinction with fewer than 150 individuals remaining in the wild, little has been done to address the problem.

Non Native Plans Wreck Havoc

Unnecessary plantation drives for the sole purpose of increasing the forest cover find these grasslands as a perfect spot to grow trees. But these tree plantations not only destroy these pristine habitats but also fragment them into smaller pieces of openlands by disturbing their continuity, thus affecting the wildlife adversely. Additionally, invasive species like Prosopis juliflora and Latana camara, which were introduced to the grasslands by humans many years ago, are now dominating the area, leaving no room for native grasses to grow due to the lack of nutrients and moisture in the soil.

Although these species are safeguarded by the “Wildlife Protection Act,” incidents of poaching and road accidents occur frequently in their habitats due to inadequate vigilance and protection.

Feral Dogs

One of the overlooked threats to grasslands is the presence of feral dogs that often accompany human settlements near these habitats. These dogs pose a significant danger to the wildlife in the grassland system and other habitats as well. They not only prey upon rare herbivore species like the blackbuck and the chinkaras but also act as carriers of the Canine Distemper Virus, which is deadly to carnivores. There have been reports of wolves dying from this disease in recent years. It is essential to address this issue and take appropriate measures to control the population of feral dogs to prevent further harm to the wildlife and the environment.

Importance of Grasslands and its Wildlife

The Indian grasslands and their inhabitants are in dire need of conservation to safeguard themselves. Government and the common public need to see these lands as biodiverse habitats rather than wastelands which can be achieved with the help of proper awareness.

The Government recently introduced ‘Project Cheetah ‘ which aims at bringing back this extinct spotted cat and thus implementing the ground level conservation and restoration of their habitat i.e. the grasslands which will indirectly aid the survival of other species. To conclude, grasslands are not just empty fields, they are vital habitats that support diverse wildlife and provide numerous ecological and economical services, making their conservation crucial for the health of our planet.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Samarth Jain

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on May 14, 2023.

[twf2020]

The History of the Sariska Tiger Reserve Controversy

Sariska Tiger Reserve, located in the Alwar district of Rajasthan, India, is one of the largest national parks in the country. It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 and a tiger reserve in 1978, with the aim of conserving the critically endangered Bengal tiger species. However, in 2005, the reserve came into the limelight for all the wrong reasons — the discovery of zero tigers. The Sariska Tiger Poaching case study is a grim reminder of how human greed and apathy can wipe out an entire species.

Background to the Sariska Tiger Reserve Controversy

Investigation

The discovery of zero tigers in Sariska led to a massive investigation, with the Rajasthan police, forest department, and NTCA joining hands. The investigation revealed that the tigers were poached by a local gang, which had been active in the area for years. The poachers had been using traps, poisoned bait, and other illegal means to hunt the tigers. The gang’s leader, Sansar Chand, was arrested and confessed to killing at least four tigers in the reserve.

The investigation also exposed the complicity of some forest officials in the poaching. It was alleged that the officials had turned a blind eye to the poaching in exchange for bribes. Some officials were even found to be involved in the illegal wildlife trade, smuggling tiger skins and body parts.

Aftermath

The Sariska Tiger Poaching case study was a wake-up call for the Indian government and the conservationists. The government launched a massive drive to revamp the tiger conservation efforts in the country. The National Tiger Conservation Authority was given more power and funds to tackle poaching, habitat destruction, and human-tiger conflict. The government also amped up Project Tiger, a national tiger conservation program that aims to protect and conserve tiger populations in India.

The Sariska reserve was closed for tourists for some time to allow for the rehabilitation of tigers in the area. In 2008, two tigers were relocated to Sariska from Ranthambore National Park, another tiger reserve in Rajasthan. Since then, the population of tigers in Sariska has slowly but steadily increased. As of 2021, there are around 14 tigers in the reserve.

Lessons Learned from Sariska Tiger Reserve

The Sariska Tiger Poaching case study offers several lessons for the conservationists and policymakers. Firstly, it highlights the importance of having a robust and corruption-free system for wildlife conservation. Corruption and apathy of officials can lead to the destruction of wildlife and their habitats. Secondly, it emphasizes the need for a multidimensional approach to conservation. It is not just about protecting the animals but also about ensuring their habitats’ sustainability and addressing human-tiger conflict. Lastly, it shows the importance of public participation and awareness. People living in and around the tiger reserves must be made aware of the importance of conservation and the negative impacts of poaching and habitat destruction.

The Sariska Tiger Poaching case study is a cautionary tale of how human greed and apathy can push an entire species to the brink of extinction. The case study underscores the importance of conservation efforts and the need for a multidimensional approach to protect wildlife and their habitats. The government and conservationists must continue to work together to ensure that such incidents are not repeated in the future. The case study also highlights the importance of strong enforcement measures and accountability in the fight against poaching and illegal wildlife trade.

Conclusion

While the rehabilitation of tigers in Sariska is a positive development, it is important to note that there is still a long way to go in tiger conservation in India. The country is home to over 70% of the world’s tiger population, and they face numerous threats, including habitat loss, poaching, and human-tiger conflict. The government and conservationists must continue to work together to address these challenges and ensure the long-term survival of tigers in the country.

In conclusion, the Sariska Tiger Poaching case study serves as a stark reminder of the dire consequences of poaching and illegal wildlife trade. It is essential to work towards conservation efforts to protect these majestic animals and their habitats. We must learn from the past and take concrete steps to ensure that the future generations can witness the beauty of tigers in the wild.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Mohammed Thanvir

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on May 12, 2023.

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Urban Ecology and Sustainable City Planning | Think Wildlife Foundation

Urban ecology is a branch of ecology, also involved with the study of living organisms with each other and their surroundings, but in an urban backdrop. This environment would contain urbanized landscapes such as cities and towns, thus incorporating not only the environmental point of view, but also the socio-economic aspect of the ecosystem.

Urban ecology depends on sustainable urban planning for its success. Ecological urban planning involves using green and blue elements, thus restoring nature in the ecosystem, while at the same time, making sure of technological and infrastructural prowess.

New concepts in urban planning

The new concepts used in green urban planning initiate that the city is, in fact, a living organism with complex metabolic systems. To achieve good health, it needs to be sustainable and must promote a healthy atmosphere to its cells, i.e., its residents. Synonymous concepts, thus, such as new urbanism, green urbanism, bio-urbanism, organic urbanism, biophilic city, smart city, sustainable city, eco-city, and green city are implemented.

Green urbanism creates beneficial urban communities, with social, economic, and environmental benefits.

Bio-urbanism or organic urbanism, for that matter, introduces the idea that city and nature should meet. Biophilic cities contain large amounts of natural elements and aim at protecting, preserving, and restoring nature.

Sustainable cities or eco-cities are designed by taking into account their impact on the environment, in the sense of minimizing waste production and pollution, as well as the inputs of energy, water, and food. These targets constitute the principles of sustainable urban development.

A similar concept is the smart city, where the investments in socio-human capital, urban infrastructure, and rational management of natural resources encourage sustainable economic development and a high quality of life through participatory actions and commitment from community members.

A green city is a way to increase the sustainability of urbanized areas. It is a concept of urban planning relying on the ecosystem services that green infrastructure can supply. In essence, this concept includes the characteristics of all the urban concepts described previously (a city which meets with nature, restores the values of the urban ecosystem, minimizes resource and energy consumption, and takes advantage of the ecosystem services of the blue-green natural components).

Essential elements of green cities

Green infrastructure is an interconnected network of green areas and hydrographic elements, contributing to the preservation and enhancement of biodiversity and the maintenance of the biotic processes within the urban environments close to their natural condition. Some elements of green infrastructure found in green cities are:

Green and blue oxygen-producing areas are the fundamental components of green cities. They are represented by trees, shrubs, and water reservoirs such as lakes and rivers. Their function is to control pollution, conserve water, protect soil systems, purify the air, mitigate urban climate and improve the aesthetic aspect of urban life. Moreover, infrastructure such as green, blue, and green-blue corridors (Amsterdam) also paves the role for all necessary functions. Green belts (Paris) and urban forests are also one component of green town planning, reserved for the restoration of vegetation. Furthermore, urban agriculture (Copenhagen) is also promoted in areas where agriculture is the main source of livelihood.

Green buildings (Frankfurt) are indispensable infrastructural components of green cities. They are built with respectable regard towards the environment, thus consume less energy, use renewable resources, don’t pollute the atmosphere, and conserve water.

A green street network is applied to conserve eco-mobility, i.e., to reduce and mitigate impacts of transport on the health of an urban ecosystem. Thus, a green city’s architecture should reflect sane and clean environmental practices. The city of Curitiba has implemented a sustainable transport system, the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). Bicycles (popular in Europe) may be encouraged, with emphasis on carpooling, and electric cars, too. Additionally, eco-friendly sidewalks in lieu of concrete pavements may encourage soil and water sub-systems to flourish, without hindering their nutrient cycles.

An example of a concept to promote eco-cities

The 15-minute city (‘la ville du quart d’heure’ in French) is a rising concept in the domain of urban planning and the uprise of smart cities, in which all citizens can to access their basic needs and wants within a short distance from their domicile. This concept, which worships the term ‘local’, has been proposed by Carlos Moreno, a French-Colombian urbanist and a professor at the prestigious Sorbonne Université.

In this city, one would be able to fulfil 6 essential functions: living, working, commerce, healthcare, education, and entertainment; at a radius of 5 minutes by bicycle and 15 minutes by walking. It is based on 4 components: density, proximity, diversity, and digitalisation. Other similar concepts include those of Weng and da Silva. Several implementations have started to be seen in cities in Canada, France, and Colombia, such as in Ottawa, Nantes, Paris, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Mulhouse.

The goal is to reduce the use of vehicles, as well as to reduce energy and time lost in traveling. Moreover, this concept aims at creating a healthy biosphere, where citizens may roam around freely around the city, on sidewalks, bicycle paths and thus aim at smart sustainable urbanism. There is a vision to implement this concept at least in districts and quartiers, before implying the project in huge metropoles. It promotes green spaces and components of green cities, thus promoting positive environmental impact in the form of increasing biodiversity and preventing invasive species.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Shreya Patankar

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on July 22, 2023.

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How is the Olive Ridley Turtle being conserved in India?

Regarded as one of the smallest sea turtles in the world, the Olive Ridley Turtle is found in the warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. They get their name from olive- coloured carapace, which is heart shaped and well rounded. Olive Ridley Turtles are the most widespread of marine turtle with their range expanding across the coastal waters of over 80 countries.

They show sexual dimorphism i.e. the male and female of this species can be identified separately by their external morphology. The male is larger, has a more prominent, longer and thicker tail which aids during mating. Males also have enlarged and hooked claws on the it’s front flippers which allows him to grasp the female during mating.

Nesting Behaviour of the Olive Ridley Turtle

Like most sea turtles, these too come to land only for laying eggs. Mother digs up a cavity in sand with the help of their hind flippers and lays its eggs there and then covers them up again to secure the eggs from the predator and help in incubation.

Olive ridley turtles exhibit two different nesting behaviours, the most prevalent solitary nesting, but also the behaviour they are best known for, the synchronised mass nesting, termed ‘ arribadas.’ The coast of Orissa is one of the largest ‘arribadas’ nesting sites of Olive Ridley whereas solitary nesting occurs in Coromandel coast and Sri Lanka.

Even though they are abundant in range, globally they have declined by more than 30% from their historic range. Now, they have been given the ‘Vulnerable’ status by the IUCN.

Threats to Olive Ridley Turtle

Olive Ridley’s eggs are easily predated by snakes, crocodiles and crabs.

Hatchlings on their way to the ocean are preyed upon by seabirds, crabs, crows, Brahminy Kites, jackals and wild boars.

Eggs are also susceptible to drowning due to high tides.

Digging up of nests by these predators also disrupts the incubation of remaining eggs which may result in their destruction.

The greatest single cause of egg loss, results from arribadas, in which the density of nesting females is so high, previously laid nests are inadvertently dug up and destroyed by other nesting females.

Nests may get contaminated by bacteria and pathogens, resulting in rotting of eggs.

Big fishes also feast on these hatchlings as soon as they reach the ocean.

Adults have been observed to be predated by Sharks and Killer Whales.

Introduction of alien species like pigs and feral dogs in the nesting sites by humans results in predation of the eggs and hatchlings by these alien species in huge numbers, hence damaging the population.

Humans directly are still listed as the leading threat to Olive Ridley since they are responsible for unsustainable egg collection, slaughtering nesting females on the beach and directly harvesting adults at sea for commercial sale of both meat and hides.

Mortality associated with boat collisions,

Incidental takes in fisheries

Trawling, gill nets, ghost nests, longline fishing, and pot fishing have significantly affected their populations.

Entanglement and ingestion of marine debris.

Coastal development, climate change, and other sources of beach erosion have also been cited as potential threats to nesting grounds.

Coastal development also threatens newly hatched turtles through the effects of light pollution. Hatchlings which use light cues to orient themselves to the sea are now misled into moving towards land, and die from dehydration or exhaustion, or are killed on roads.

How is the Olive Ridley Turtle being conserved in India?

They have been listed in Appendix I of CITES, which is responsible for halting the large- scale commercial exploitation and trade.

Many NGOs in India and outside India work together to ensure that no egg collection and poaching takes place in nesting sites.

Enforcing the use of turtle excluder devices in the shrimp-trawling industry has also proved effective in some areas.

Many schools arrange trips for students to carry out the conservation project, especially in India.

Many projects worldwide are working on preserving the Olive Ridley’s eggs. These eggs are relocated in hatcheries, where they are protected from various threats including predation. When the baby turtles come out, they are picked up and directly released into the ocean.

In Chennai, India, one such project by the Chennai wildlife team involved collection of close to 10,000 eggs along the Marina coast, of which 8,834 hatchlings were successfully released into the sea in a phased manner.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Samarth Jain

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on July 8, 2023.

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Disappearing Majestic — The Great Hornbill

The Great Hornbill, with its striking appearance and majestic presence, is one of the most iconic bird species found in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. This large, colourful bird is not only a natural wonder but also plays a vital role in maintaining the delicate balance of its ecosystem. However, like many other wildlife species, the Great Hornbill faces numerous threats that endanger its survival. They are currently marked as a ‘vulnerable’ species in the IUCN list.

Even though they are predominantly frugivorous, they also prey on small mammals, reptiles and birds. Due to its large size and colour, it is important in many tribal cultures and rituals. In India, their distribution is fragmented in the Western Ghats and the foothills of Himalayas. They appear to be dependent on large stretches of rain forests. The Government of Kerala declared it as the official State Bird.

Picture 1: Great Hornbill by Shantanu Kuveskar

The Famous Nests

They are very famous for their nesting practice. The nest is made in the hollow of a large tree trunk. The female then seals the opening with a plaster made up mainly of faeces. She remains imprisoned there, relying on the male to bring her food, until the chicks are half developed. During this period the female undergoes a complete moult. The young chicks have no feathers and appear very plump. The mother is fed by her mate through a slit in the seal. The clutch consists of one or two eggs, which the female incubates for 38–40 days.

What are the threats faced by the Great Indian Hornbill?

Habitat Loss: One of the most significant threats to the Great Hornbill is the loss of its natural habitat due to deforestation and habitat fragmentation. The rapid expansion of agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development has resulted in the destruction and fragmentation of the bird’s forest home. Unfortunately, the loss of habitat disrupts the bird’s feeding and nesting patterns, leading to a decline in its population.

Hunting and Poaching: The Great Hornbill is hunted for its beak, feathers, and other body parts, which are valued for their supposed medicinal and cultural significance. Additionally, the demand for its casque, a unique helmet-like structure on its bill, has fueled illegal poaching activities. Despite legal protection in many countries, poaching remains a serious threat.

Climate Change: The changing climate patterns pose a significant threat to the Great Hornbill’s habitat and food availability. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events can disrupt the delicate balance of the forest ecosystem. Changes in fruiting seasons and the availability of tree cavities for nesting can have detrimental effects on the Great Hornbill’s breeding success.

How is the Great Hornbill being conserved?

Protected Areas and Legislation: The establishment and management of protected areas have played a crucial role in safeguarding the Great Hornbill’s habitat. National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and forest reserves provide legal protection against habitat destruction and hunting. Strict legislation and enforcement against poaching have been implemented, with penalties for violators to deter illegal activities.

Habitat Restoration: Efforts are underway to restore and rehabilitate degraded forest areas, providing the Great Hornbill with a suitable habitat for breeding, foraging, and nesting. Reforestation initiatives, including the planting of native tree species, help to recreate the bird’s preferred forest habitat and promote the recovery of its population.

Community Engagement and Awareness: Engaging with indigenous communities and raising awareness about the importance of preserving this species and its habitat helps foster a sense of stewardship. Local communities can become active partners in monitoring and reporting illegal activities, promoting sustainable livelihoods, and participating in eco-tourism initiatives. With active efforts of the government, now in the Hornbill festivals, artificial beaks of hornbills are used rather than the real one.

Research and Monitoring: Scientists and conservation organisations conduct research to gather crucial data on the Great Hornbill’s ecology, behaviour, and population dynamics. Monitoring programs help assess population trends, breeding success, and the impact of conservation interventions. This information guides conservation strategies and adaptive management approaches.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on July 7, 2023.

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Vanishing Spots: Threats to the Indian Leopard

Silently pouncing on its prey and choking its windpipe, an extremely skilled predator roams in most of India. They have a higher hunting success rate than the mighty tiger. They prey on a large range of animals starting from hares to Nilgais. Here, I am mentioning the iconic spotted cat — the Indian Leopard.

The Indian leopard has strong legs and a long, well-formed tail, broad muzzle, short ears, small, yellowish-grey eyes, and light-grey ocular bulbs. Its coat is spotted and rosetted on a pale yellow to yellowish-brown or golden background, the spots fade toward the white underbelly and the insides and lower parts of the legs. Rosettes are most prominent on the back, flanks and hindquarters. The pattern of the rosettes is unique to each individual.

They are elusive, solitary, and largely nocturnal. It is known for its ability in climbing, and has been observed resting on tree branches during the day, dragging its kills up trees and hanging them there, and descending from trees headfirst. It is a powerful swimmer. It is very agile, and can run at over 58 kilometres per hour, leap over 6 m horizontally, and jump up to 3 m.

What are the main threats faced by the Indian Leopard?

Leopards, known for their adaptability and ability to coexist with humans, are facing numerous threats to their survival in India. Shrinking forests, poaching, and human-animal conflicts are among the major challenges that jeopardise the future of these majestic felines. This article aims to explore the threats facing Indian leopards, including habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflicts. Additionally, we will delve into the conservation efforts and preventive measures undertaken to protect this endangered species and promote their coexistence with human communities.

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

One of the primary threats to Indian leopards is the loss and fragmentation of their natural habitat. Rapid deforestation, urbanisation, and expanding agricultural activities are diminishing the forests and reducing the prey base for leopards. As their habitat shrinks, leopards are compelled to venture into human settlements in search of food and shelter. This not only increases the chances of conflicts with humans but also exposes them to fatal road accidents as they navigate through urban areas. The encroachment of human activities into leopard habitats further disrupts their natural behaviour and ecological balance.

Poaching

Poaching poses a significant threat to Indian leopards, despite their protected status under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. Leopard skins, bones, and other body parts are in demand for their supposed medicinal properties and as luxury items. The illegal wildlife trade operates in various parts of the country, driven by the lucrative market for leopard products. Unfortunately, the enforcement of laws against poaching has been inadequate, leading to a low conviction rate and continued poaching activities. The lack of attention and concern for leopard poaching compared to high-profile cases involving tigers and rhinos further exacerbates the problem.

Human-Wildlife Conflict

Human-leopard conflict is a significant challenge for conservation efforts. In rural areas, leopards often come into conflict with villagers due to predation on livestock or, in rare instances, attacks on humans. Retaliatory killings by villagers seeking to protect their livelihoods or as acts of revenge are a common occurrence. Moreover, leopard cubs born in sugarcane fields face vulnerability when their mothers run away in fear of humans during harvesting. These defenceless cubs become susceptible to being killed by humans or attacked by stray dogs. Falling into uncovered water wells also poses a risk to the lives of leopards.

How can the Indian Leopard be conserved?

Various organisations, government agencies, and NGOs are actively involved in conserving Indian leopards and addressing the threats they face. They have made significant contributions to protecting leopards from harm and rehabilitating them in the wild. These organisations work on awareness campaigns, education, and community engagement to foster a better understanding of leopards’ ecological importance and promote their coexistence with humans.

To mitigate human-leopard conflicts, measures such as enforcing stringent traffic laws near wildlife-sensitive areas, establishing wildlife corridors, and implementing early-warning systems can reduce the chances of fatal incidents involving leopards and humans. It is crucial to increase awareness among local communities about the importance of leopard conservation and provide them with tools and knowledge to prevent conflicts. Additionally, forest departments need to strengthen their efforts in patrolling, monitoring, and prosecuting offenders involved in poaching and illegal wildlife trade.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Samarth Jain

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on July 6, 2023.

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How is the Barasingha being conserved?

The Indian Swamp deer commonly known as the Barasingha (one with 12 tines in its antlers) is one of the most endangered mammal species in the world. Its Hindi name may not hold true since the number of tines in its antlers can range anywhere from 10 to 20 but its English name ‘Swamp deer’ holds true and refers to the swampy habitat that these deer species prefer to live in.

This alluring and iconic species was once found in most of the Indian subcontinent but now it has become endemic to India and Nepal. Three vulnerable sub species have been distinguished on the basis of morphological features.

Northern Swamp deer (Nepal)

Central Indian Swamp deer (Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh.)

Eastern Swamp deer. (in North- east India and Uttar Pradesh.)

Barasingha Conservation in Kanha National Park

From a population of around 3,000 in 1938, the Hard-ground Barasingha went near the brink of extinction by the 1970s, with only a single population of 66 individuals in Kanha left in the whole world.

The management however was quick to address this and they started various methods to secure and encourage the growth of their population.

Habitat Managment

Village Relocation Over time, around 35 forest villages were relocated to expand the core area of Kanha National Park. This was done to increase the suitable habitat for the Swamp deers.

Evacuated sites morphed into excellent habitat for Barasingha — The village area which was degraded due to anthropogenic factors previously were enhanced into excellent grasslands by growing Swamp deer’s favorite diet.

Active grassland management — The grasslands were managed carefully, any woody flora or weeds was removed.

In-situ conservation enclosures at Kanha — Firstly, a 25 hectare predator free enclosure was created in the year 1996–1997 in the Kanha Reserve and eight Swamp deers were released in it. Overtime, the area was increased to 50 hectares. In 2010–2011, the number grew nearly 10 times and 80 of them were released back to the wild.

Swamp creation to reduce sympatric competition — As the name suggests, Swamp deer prefer to live near the swampy areas and forage in the water bodies of these areas. They are highly selective with their diet and hence artificial swamps were created to encourage the growth of their favorite grasses such as ‘Saccharum spontaneum’

Tall grass/ wallows/ shallow water tanks — Native tall grasses were planted and shallow water tanks were created making the area preferable for breeding and reproduction. Females give birth in dense and tall grasses, without these grasses, the fawn are at risk of predation.

Series of water ponds — Series of water ponds were created to encourage swampy regions in the meadows.

Population Monitoring and Managment

Mortality Survey — Efforts were made to meticulously record all instances of mortality and their respective causes, ensuring that a significant majority of these occurrences are not left unobserved.

Daily Monitoring — Despite the considerable achievements and the current population of approximately 1000 Barasinghas inhabiting Kanha National Park, a daily virtual head count monitoring procedure continues to be diligently carried out. This meticulous process is undertaken to ensure accurate data collection and is promptly reported to the esteemed office of the Field Director on a daily basis.

Establishing a geographically separated population — Since the 1970s, a remarkable transformation has occurred in the population dynamics of a certain species within Kanha National Park. Initially, there existed a solitary population comprising a mere 66 individuals. However, through concerted conservation efforts and protective measures, the species has proliferated and currently inhabits three to four distinct geographic regions within the park. Moreover, these separate populations are characterized by the presence of 10 to 15 herds within each of them.

Barasingha Reintroduction Program

Nonetheless, recognizing the inherent risks associated with concentrating an entire population of Swamp deer solely within the confines of Kanha National Park, experts have diligently acknowledged the importance of diversifying their distribution. They were not ready to place “all the eggs in one basket”. The potential devastation caused by calamities or epidemics necessitates a proactive approach to ensure the long-term survival of the subspecies.

Therefore, it has become imperative to undertake deliberate measures that involve introducing the Swamp deer to other geographically isolated suitable habitats within various reserves across Madhya Pradesh.

First two translocations failed miserably. In 1982, 18 individuals who were taken to Bandhavgarh didn’t survive the trip itself. This was a big setback. Later after some years, a second attempt to take them to Supkhar meadows inside the Kanha National Park resulted in 50% mortality. It thus became a huge challenge. Finally after a lot of challenges, the third translocation was carried out. It was tireless efforts of the forest management and staff that made it a positive outcome. Seven Barasinghas were thus successfully translocated to Van Vihar in Bhopal. Even the pregnant females brought from Kahna successfully gave birth in Van Vihar proving that all the efforts were valiant.

After this, over time 58 Swamp deers were translocated to Satpura Tiger Reserve successfully. Now this population has exceeded 100 individuals. Currently efforts are being undertaken to introduce Swamp deers to Bandhavgarh National Park.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Samarth Jain

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on July 5, 2023.

#Youtube

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The California Condor: Breeding and Reintroduction Efforts for North America’s Largest Bird

Fascinating Characteristics of the California Condor

1. Size and Wingspan: With a wingspan of up to nine and a half feet, the California Condor is North America’s largest bird. It can weigh anywhere from 15 to 31 pounds, making it one of the heaviest flying birds in the world.

2. Longevity: California Condors are known to have a long lifespan, often living up to 60 years or more in the wild. This remarkable longevity is a testament to their resilience and ability to survive in challenging environments.

3. Scavengers: Condors are scavengers, feeding primarily on large carcasses of animals such as deer, cattle, and marine mammals. Their bald head is an adaptation for feeding, as it helps keep the bird clean and prevents bacteria from building up on their feathers.

4. Soaring and Energy Conservation: California Condors are masters of soaring, utilizing thermal updrafts to gain altitude with minimal effort. This ability to glide for long distances conserves energy and allows them to search vast areas for food.

5. Parental Care: Condors typically mate for life and are known for their extensive parental care. Both parents share responsibility for incubating the egg and feeding the chick once it hatches. The chick will remain dependent on its parents for up to two years, after which it will venture out on its own.

Breeding and Reintroduction Efforts

The California Condor recovery program began in the 1980s when the remaining wild condors were captured and placed into captive breeding programs. This controversial decision was made to ensure the survival of the species, as the risks of leaving these birds in the wild were deemed too high. The breeding and reintroduction initiatives were collaborations between multiple organizations, including the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the San Diego Zoo, the Los Angeles Zoo, and the Peregrine Fund.

The captive breeding programs have been remarkably successful, with more than 400 birds in existence as of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021, and the population trend continues to be positive. Breeding techniques have included natural mating, artificial insemination, and double clutching, where a laid egg is removed to stimulate the female to lay a second egg. The chicks are often hand-reared using puppets that mimic adult condors to avoid human imprinting.

The reintroduction of captive-bred condors to the wild is a complex and gradual process. Young condors undergo a rigorous “boot camp” to prepare them for the perils of the natural world. They are taught to avoid power lines and people, and to recognize and handle their natural food.

Reintroduction began in 1991 in California, and later, in parts of Arizona, Utah, and Baja California in Mexico. The released condors are closely monitored using radio telemetry and satellite tracking. The reintroduction process, while challenging, has seen a steadily increasing wild population.

The Way forward for the California Condor

Despite these successes, the California Condor continues to face significant challenges. The leading cause of death among the reintroduced population is lead poisoning, often from ingesting bullet fragments in scavenged carcasses. This hazard arises from the bird’s scavenging behavior, where it often feeds on animals that have been shot with lead ammunition. The ingested lead fragments poison the bird’s system, causing severe illness and often death.

Efforts to combat this threat include legislative measures to restrict or ban the use of lead ammunition within the condor’s range. Moreover, education programs for hunters have been introduced to promote the use of non-lead alternatives. While progress has been made, the persistence of lead poisoning remains a significant hurdle in the path towards the complete recovery of the species.

Another ongoing threat is habitat loss due to urban development and changes in land use. Safe and suitable nesting and feeding sites are critical for the survival and growth of the condor population. Conservation organizations are working with landowners and government agencies to protect and manage these important habitats.

The survival of the California Condor depends on the continued commitment to these conservation efforts. This includes ongoing monitoring of the wild population, proactive management of threats, and public education to foster a coexistence between humans and condors.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Sanghmitra Singh

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on July 4, 2023.

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How is the Harpy Eagle being conserved in the Amazon Rainforest?

The Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) is one of the largest and most powerful birds of prey in the world, and it is found exclusively in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America. With a wingspan of up to 7 feet and sharp talons that can reach up to 5 inches in length, the Harpy Eagle is an apex predator that feeds on a wide range of prey, including monkeys, sloths, and other birds.

What are the threats faced by the Harpy Eagle?

The Harpy Eagle is considered to be a near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and its population is estimated to be declining due to habitat loss, hunting, and other human activities. The primary threat to the Harpy Eagle is habitat loss, as the tropical rainforests of Central and South America are being rapidly destroyed for agriculture, logging, and other human activities. The Harpy Eagle requires large areas of intact forest to hunt and breed, and as these areas become fragmented and degraded, the eagle’s habitat becomes increasingly unsuitable for survival.

In addition to habitat loss, the Harpy Eagle is also threatened by hunting and poaching. In some parts of its range, the Harpy Eagle is hunted for its feathers, which are used in traditional headdresses and other cultural items. The eagles are also sometimes hunted for food, as their meat is considered a delicacy in some regions. Although hunting is illegal in most countries where the Harpy Eagle is found, enforcement of these laws is often weak or non-existent, and poaching continues to be a major threat to the species.

How is the Harpy Eagle being conserved?

Despite these challenges, there are a number of efforts underway to protect the Harpy Eagle and its habitat in the Amazon rainforest. One of the most important strategies for protecting the Harpy Eagle is the conservation of its habitat. In order to ensure that the Harpy Eagle has access to suitable areas for hunting and breeding, conservationists are working to protect large areas of intact forest and to prevent further deforestation and fragmentation of the rainforest. This includes working with local communities to develop sustainable land-use practices that allow for economic development while also protecting the rainforest and its wildlife.

In addition to habitat conservation and research, there are also a number of initiatives focused specifically on the protection of Harpy Eagles from hunting and poaching. These efforts include increased enforcement of hunting and poaching laws, as well as educational campaigns aimed at reducing demand for Harpy Eagle feathers and meat. By raising awareness of the importance of the Harpy Eagle to local communities and beyond, conservationists hope to reduce the threat of poaching and ensure that the species continues to thrive in the wild.

We at Think Wildlife Foundation recently launched our Livelihoods for Conservation project to provide alternative, sustainable livelihoods to the communities living with wildlife. This is with the aim to incentivize conservation while uplifting these communities economically. You can purchase merchandise from these communities here!

Written by: Sanghmitra Singh

Originally published at https://thinkwildlifefoundation.com on July 3, 2023.

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