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alexissleeps · 4 years

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Wollstonecraft and Tocqueville on Tyranny

“A collective tyrant, spread over the length and breadth of the land, is no more acceptable than a single tyrant ensconced upon his throne.”

— Clemenceau

Freedom fighters and liberty lovers are eternally burdened with the threat of tyranny. Power unrestrained threatens liberty and can extend itself to cruelty, and in response, many political theorists have contributed their verse to a body of knowledge that seeks to define and identify tyranny. Contemporarily, US Secretary of State Condoleeza Rice identified a number of totalitarian regimes in 2005, which she referred to as “Outposts of Tyranny.” Our concern does not waver, the vigilance never ends. With regard to governmental regimes, tyranny tends to be defined as a government that is oppressive and operates on cruel or arbitrary use of power (OED). However, what is essential to tyranny is the concept of power. Governments can be tyrannical because they have power over their citizens; similarly, people can possess absolute power over others and, thus, use it tyrannically in social relations.

At the end of the 18th century, Mary Wollstonecraft—writer, philosopher, women’s rights activist—gave a voice to women by revealing the reality of domination and hardship in their lives. Wollstonecraft, in her depiction of the state of women, characterized the regime of gender as tyrannical for women. Unlike a tyranny imposed by government, Wollstonecraft described a tyranny imposed via social relationships, by men and women. This argument was met with contention by Alexis de Tocqueville, a French aristocrat writing around 30 years after Wollstonecraft’s early death in 1797. His characterization of the status of women, while being similar in means, foils Wollstonecraft’s in the ends of women’s role and its implications. Fundamentally, he believed women consented to their role, and thus are not victims of tyranny. I seek to address this contention and illuminate potential faults in reasoning which leads to it. By arguing from a mutually agreed-upon definition, I demonstrate how Tocqueville’s own definition of tyranny invalidates his position on the status of women as being ‘separate but equal’ and not as subjects of tyrannical rule like Wollstonecraft describes.

Alexis de Tocqueville, in his two-volume collection of observations and theoretical discussions of democracy, Democracy in America, offers several accounts of tyranny. First, Tocqueville describes conditions which are the result of tyranny by government. In his chapter, “Kind of Despotism to Fear,” Tocqueville describes the consolidation of power to centralized government which regulates everything, from “foreseeing and taking care of needs,” to “facilitating…pleasures” (818). This “concentration of power” leads citizens into a “kind of servitude…and obedience” to their government (789, 818). They become completely dependent on a government that has absolute power over its citizenry. While Tocqueville hedges that, particularly in democracies, this condition may exist with some “external liberties,” in the absence of any or most liberty, it is total tyranny (819). But, nevertheless, the “los[s] of independence” coupled with the “los[s] of political liberty” are results of tyranny in government (596, 583).

Conversely, Tocqueville also described a tyranny which is equal parts social and political. Specifically, he warned of democratic institutions' tendency toward what he called “omnipotence” or “tyranny of the majority” (287). He described the power of the majority as “absolute” in the way its whims are quickly and totally made law; the status of the nation determined by the fleeting desires of the largest group. The “tyranny of the majority” is a power which “oversteps the bounds of justice and reason,” turns people into its “slaves,” and leads to general “abuse” (288, 289). In general, he claims that “the right and wherewithal to do all accorded to any power…lies the seed of tyranny” (290). In summary, Tocqueville regards tyranny as absolute power which is used to abuse and coerce others into submission so that they are essentially slaves.

In Mary Wollstonecraft’s novel Maria, she discursively paints a picture of the lives of two women who existed under various manifestations of tyranny. Through the narratives of two central character’s lives, Maria and Jemima, Wollstonecraft demonstrates the oppressive regime of gender under which they subsisted, and overtly denotes their condition as tyranny.

To begin, the readers are first introduced to the history of Jemima, a charge nurse at an asylum who tends to Maria. Jemima describes herself as having been “born a slave, and chained by infamy to slavery” (83). She was forced into the servitude of her family, including her younger sister; she was a victim of “neglect and unkind treatment” (80). Jemima overtly refers to her step-mother as being a “tyrant” who treated her as a “creature of another species” (81). Throughout much of her life, Jemima was a victim of abuse and sexual violence, in part a consequence of her status as “a slave, a bastard, a common property” (85).

After leaving her familial home, Jemima was left with little options to sustain herself, becoming a slave, a prostitute, a thief, and a beggar. However, because of Jemima’s depraved and degraded womanhood, she “had the advantage of hearing discussions, from which, in the common course of life, women are excluded.” (86) In a paradoxical way, Jemima’s status as being beneath a woman allowed her the opportunity to access books and intellectual conversation that ‘real’ women were excluded from.

On the other hand, whilst Maria is born under different circumstances, she is nevertheless also depicted as a victim of tyranny. Beginning with her father, Maria describes (in autobiographical letters to her daughter) the nature of his parental hand. He was a man “instantaneously to be obeyed” and submission, from both wife and kids, to “his absolute authority” was necessary (95). Maria’s “unconditional submission to [his] orders” was her daily reality, and she soon realized them to be “unreasonable, because inconsistent and contradictory” (95, 96). Maria described her condition as “domestic tyranny,” and lamented the “tyranny of [her] father” (97). In a similar manner as her father, her eldest brother became “deputy-tyrant” and the “despot of his brothers, and still more his sisters” (95). Maria appealed to her uncle; an educated man who plucked her from ignorance, lent her books, and fostered her informal education, after “[her] liberty [was] unnecessarily abridged, and [her] books…taken from [her]” (103). She was looking for his help in escaping the oppressive household rule she lived under.

Maria’s only option: marriage. Her uncle paid a man, George Venables, to take Maria as his betrothed. This arrangement, however, did not free Maria from her unfortunate status. Venables made Maria his servant, and they were a couple that was neither “friends [n]or confidants” (108). After enduring more “domestic tyranny,” Maria questioned the society she lived in, which made “woman property of their husband” (109). Eventually, Venables has Maria detained in an asylum whilst he attempts to steal her inheritance left by her uncle (despite Maria being totally sane).

Quite overtly, Wollstonecraft characterizes the experiences of both women as tyrannical. Jemima was subjected to cruel, depersonalizing treatment by those who possessed more power than her, specifically men and their women. Jemima’s body, mind, and wellbeing was at the mercy of their arbitrary power. Therefore, her tragic existence, her “slave” status, her oppression, was the work of tyranny. In a similar vein, Maria was the slave of first her father, then her husband. The men of Maria’s family held absolute power and exercised it in a manner which was “unreasonable.” Save her uncle, they forcibly chained her to ignorance, and “cruelly repressed” the more ‘masculine’ qualities favored in her brothers (96). Then, she was reduced to being owned by her husband, subject to his every beck and call, and [unable to own anything herself] (118). Slavery is an extension of tyranny, as indicated by both Tocqueville and Wollstonecraft.

The women’s attempts to escape tyranny, which inevitably lead them to other traps of tyranny, symbolizes the systemic dynamics of power which gave men absolute power over women, regardless of other dynamics of power such as class and age. In addition, not allowing them access to education or opportunities, fostering “the dependent state of women,” reinforces the power of men (Wollstonecraft, 115). Because it is artificial, and not based on an inherent superiority, women must be degraded to remain under the tyrannical thumb of men, made to rely on them for sustenance, a home, and the chance to acquire knowledge.

Furthermore, Wollstonecraft’s insight into the complexity of this tyranny is exhibited in this short anecdote: Jemima obtained the fancy of a tradesmen. She advised him to throw out a woman he both impregnated and promised to marry. Jemima did so because she was starving, and the girl was an imposition on her chance to thrive with that man, to have a home and food. The pregnant girl was tossed out by the tradesman and went to her father’s house, only to be ignored and left on the streets. That night, with nowhere to go, she slept in a tub which horses drank from during the night; Jemima found her dead in the morning.

This story illustrates how the subjugation of women pits them against one another for the favor and provisions of men. “By allowing women but one way of rising in the world…society makes monsters of them” (103). Men were not the only tyrants of women, but women were tyrants of each other. This is both a result and function of their oppression. A woman’s wellbeing was a zero-sum game; so, to ensure her survival and affirm what little power she may have access to, women inflicted power and pain on other women.

Both Tocqueville and Wollstonecraft seem to have a common understanding of tyranny and use it to denote similar conditions. Tocqueville uses the term to describe the state of absolute power of people or government which makes others its slave whilst restricting their freedoms; Wollstonecraft uses it to describe the state of women, whom were made slaves of their fathers and husbands, forced to submit to their absolute power, and repressed from accessing the same liberties as men. Thus, the pertinence of Tocqueville’s discussion of tyranny becomes clear when considering his observations of women and girls. It is peculiar that these two thinkers, who agree on the definition of tyranny, see it functioning in different places of western society. Or rather, that Tocqueville does not see tyranny as being inflicted upon women.

According to the observations of Tocqueville, for young men, “when boyhood ends, the man stands forth and begins to set his own course,” but when a girl grows into a young woman, she “forfeits her independence forever” (685, 695). Whilst men are allowed to seek wealth and power, women were confined “within the restricted circle of domestic interests” (695). Tocqueville also recognizes that “for a woman the only sources of happiness are to be found in the conjugal home,” they have very limited opportunities to live lives with comfort and wealth in adulthood otherwise. However, Tocqueville justifies these conditions, as “voluntary sacrifice of [women’s] will” (706). Despite their inability to “escape” from domesticity, and women’s “social inferiority” to men, Tocqueville calls this a kind of equality (708). Saying that, despite women not being allowed “the duty or right to do the same things” as men, they have “equal value but different destinies” (708). In brief, Tocqueville regards the condition of women as agreeable because of their perceived willingness to accept their role despite its restrictiveness.

Unlike Tocqueville, Wollstonecraft provides readers with the internal perspective of women, she gives their experiences a voice of their own. Through a fictional story she gives truth a platform. Tocqueville merely observes women and makes assumptions based on their physical presence and status relative to men; everything which can be seen with the naked eye, rather than parceled from the spoken-word or the inner-monologue of those who live what he attempts to explicate. Tocqueville’s third-person observations of women overlook the implications of their status. For example, while Tocqueville condemns tyranny’s ability to “gain obedience through coercion,” it does not occur to him that the women’s limited opportunities beyond marriage is a sort of coercion into the institution of marriage and womanhood (284). Without the liberty to own property, get an education, or find good work, women are coerced into sacrificing their will for that of a man, and that of their marriage. This is not a “voluntary sacrifice” as he claims, it is a sacrifice of necessity. Ironically, Tocqueville does recognize that they don’t have an other option than the bonds of marriage and domestic servitude without “jeopardizing her tranquility, her honor, and ever her social existence” (695).

Wollstonecraft demonstrates with her narrative the ways in which the inferiority of women and their restriction to “domestic interests,” that both her and Tocqueville identify, is tyrannical (Tocqueville, 695). She reveals how giving men absolute power over women leads to abuse of that power, the cruel treatment of women, and social interactions which perpetuate this pattern of dominance. And, despite this process being exactly how Tocqueville described tyranny within the context of government, his narrow scope limits him from seeing this tyranny functioning in the lives of women. For instance, Tocqueville claims that “no one would want to argue that people cannot abuse [power’s] strength in regard to another people” (289). Thus, he is aware that tyranny is not limited to political contexts, but is a result of total power wherever it may be.

In some feat of reasoning, Tocqueville is unable to identify the repression of women as a cruel exercise of men’s absolute power; their lack of political liberty, lack of independence, and condemnation into servitude of power are all conditions which correspond to his own definition of tyranny. Regardless of Wollstonecraft’s direct depiction of women as victims of tyrannical rule, and their agreement on what constitutes tyranny, Tocqueville’s own concept of tyranny should have lead him to the same conclusion. But, it didn’t. In fact, it lead him in the complete opposite direction.

Yet, why there is this discrepancy between the two thinkers, and Tocqueville’s own reason, may be a result of his priorities. To review, Tocqueville noticed that in America there was the belief that “nature had made men and women so different in physical and moral constitution” so they must “assign different uses to the diverse faculties of each” (Tocqueville, 705). Thus, in the United States, women were, as Maria, confined to the domestic sphere. Tocqueville notes, again, that women were not allowed: to enter business, manage family affairs, run for political office, or forced to do hard labor, or any work to develop physical strength (706). They were confined to a repertoire of manners and duties that were ‘womenly,’ which Tocqueville admits leaves them “dependent” on men (708). Tocqueville observes the Cult of Domesticity, but he also observed the nature of women and girls—not just their station.

For instance, in reference to young American girls, Tocqueville notes that, “a philosopher might well stumble a hundred times along the nation path these girls travel without incident or difficulty” (Tocqueville, 693). This unequivocal compliment signifies Tocqueville’s understanding that women are intellectual beings, and that “they sometimes reveal themselves to be men in mind and heart” (Tocqueville, 706). While American’s may or may not recognize this thread of equality Tocqueville glorifies, his consciousness of it makes his position on the condition of women more curious. Why is it permissible that Reasonable beings be confined to a gilt cage?

Throughout Democracy in America, Tocqueville’s warnings about democracy’s pitfalls and his judgement of the quality of American institutions centralized the question of social stability. For example, Tocqueville, in an attempt to prophesy, states “[i]f America ever loses liberty, the fault will surely lie with the omnipotence of the majority, which may drive minorities to despair and force them to resort to physical violence.” Social instability is one of Tocqueville’s greatest fears in a political society, particularly instability as a byproduct of tyranny.

But, with regard to women, Tocqueville appreciates how the US “carefully divided the functions of man and woman in order to carry out the great work of society more effectively” (Tocqueville, 705). In fact, Tocqueville does not believe women’s status as a “usurpation of their rights” in the slightest, nor does he believe women see their position as “degrading to submit to” (706). He does not believe women are victims of tyranny because he believes they fully consent to their position. Ultimately, he claims women (and himself) see value in the women’s role. Lastly, he extols, “in the United States, one does not hear adulterous wives insisting on the rights of women while trampling the most sacred duties underfoot.” The ability of hierarchies and imposed duties to engineer and execute society in, what Tocqueville believes, a more effective and long-lasting way is a good which exceeds women’s rights, and more good than women’s questioning or worse, confounding the social order.

Works Cited

de Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. Penguin, 2004.

“Tyranny.” Oxford English Dictionary, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/tyranny.

Wollstonecraft, Mary. Mary/Maria. New York University Press, 1992.

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indiasurejobs · 4 years

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Ministry of Defense (223 ABOD, 17 & 23 FDA) has invited applications for recruitment to the posts of Junior Office Assistant (Erstwhile LDC), Tradesman Mate (Erstwhile Laborer), MTS (Erstwhile Safaiwala) and Fireman.

Ministry of Defense recruitment 2019

Ministry of Defense Recruitment 2019-20: Ministry of Defense (223 ABOD, 17 & 23 FDA) has invited applications for recruitment to the posts of…

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masterbindusa1-blog · 5 years

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topcarschannel · 5 years

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aboutuntappd · 7 years

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Sesame Burgers & Beer 675 Johnnie Dodds Blvd Mt. Pleasant, SC 29464

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