#and that charles v took up the call to invade and england became one of his dominions

[fideidefenswhore]

@bunniesandbeheadings I might misunderstand the text you linked. How could Mary call Edward a bastard? KoA was dead by then, and of course widowers can remarry. Calling Jane a legitimate Queen in no way would take away KoA’s status as Queen?

all of hviii's marriages after catherine of aragon were not recognised by the catholic church/pope. when he needed dispensations for these marriages, like for affinity (his marriage to jane was one of them), they were granted by the anglican church, whose authority the pope and other catholic monarchies of christendom did not recognise (the last real 'papal' henrician appointment, irony of ironies, was thomas cranmer's). there was also the matter of all marriages taking place when the realm was in schism, thus "all other women of henry concubines and not wives". prince edward was (legitimate) heir as reified by parliament; both retroactively from the succession act of 1536 and in name by the one of 1543.

foreign dignitaries of course, when they visited, would honour whoever henry's wife was as queen to maintain good relations and as matter of diplomacy (this wasn't, of course, done by the imperial until the last weeks of AB's time as queen, but otherwise, she was, even if 'frostily' by the french as in 1534). but they were often under instruction to treat this status as transient, as lauren mackay has summarized in her biography of chapuys, for example, charles v was rather mercenary in his attitude towards jane seymour, continually referring to her as henry's 'mistress' well into their marriage in his own instructions to chapuys:

"It appears Charles [V] was at times rather ruthless in regards to Jane, despite the fact that her being in power benefitted Mary. Charles referred to her in several dispatches as Henry's mistress rather than queen [...]" Inside the Tudor Court, Lauren Mackay

#bunniesandbeheadings #replies #there's like the question of why mary did not attempt to overthrow edward while he was king if she didn't believe his reign was legitimate #which is an interesting one... #but 1) her biographers really discount how much of a dissembler she was #2) loades theorized that she actually did buy into the henrician supremacy and her own illegitimacy and simply had a turnaround once #edward died believing that was god's sign she was the rightful heir thus legitimate...which i find an oversimplistic explanation. to say #the least... #i think psychologically in the last years of the edwardian regime she had something of a redeux of the AB years? #this belief england was going to fall into perdition due to 'evil councilors' but she couldn't do anything to reverse it #which is why there's an escape attempt not just an escape plan as in the former but she also decides against this in the last hour #so yes. what was her plan? or hope? it might've been that edward vi would be excommunicated as he reached his majority #and that charles v took up the call to invade and england became one of his dominions #and she would be set up as regent as he set up his other female relatives as regent in his absence #idk if i'd say jane being in power benefitted mary. all the 'benefits' she received came from her swearing to oaths she'd been pressurized #to swear to for the past two years...? #anyway this was illuminating and instructive. to me. it best explains imo why she took such a defiant attitude towards edward. she wouldn't #have seen it as defiant if she didn't believe in his authority in the first place

[nanshe-of-nina]

Favorite History Books || Conquest: The English Kingdom of France in the Hundred Years’ War by Juliet Barker ★★★☆☆

The Hundred Years’ War is defined in the popular imagination by its great battles. The roll-call of spectacular English victories over the French is a source of literary celebration and national pride and even those who know little or nothing about the period or context can usually recall the name of at least one of the most famous trilogy – Crécy, Poitiers, Agincourt. It is curious therefore that an even greater achievement has been virtually wiped from folk memory. Few people today know that for more than thirty years there was an English kingdom of France. Quite distinct from English Gascony, which had belonged to the kings of England by right of inheritance since the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II in 1152, the English kingdom was acquired by conquest and was the creation of Henry V.

When he landed a great English army on the beaches of Normandy at the beginning of August 1417 Henry opened up an entirely new phase in the Hundred Years’ War. Never before had an English monarch invaded France with such ambitious plans: nothing less than the wholesale conquest and permanent annexation of Normandy. Yet, after he had achieved this in the space of just two years, the opportunity presented itself to secure a prize to which even his most illustrious ancestor, Edward III, could only aspire: the crown of France itself. On 21 May 1420 Charles VI of France formally betrothed Henry V of England to his daughter and recognised him as his heir and regent of France. In doing so he disinherited his own son and committed both countries to decades of warfare.

By a cruel twist of fate, Henry died just seven weeks before his father-in-law, so it was not the victor of Agincourt but his nine-month- old son, another and much lesser Henry, who became the first (and last) English king of France. Until he came of age and could rule in person, the task of defending his French realm fell to his father’s right-hand men. First and foremost among these was his brother John, duke of Bedford, a committed Francophile who made his home in France and for thirteen years ruled as regent on his nephew’s behalf. His determination to do justice to all, to rise above political faction and, most important of all, to protect the realm by a slow but steady expansion of its borders meant that, at its height, the English kingdom of France extended from the coast of Normandy almost down to the banks of the Loire: to the west it was bounded by Brittany, to the east by the Burgundian dominions, both of which, nominally at least, owed allegiance to the boy-king.

Bedford’s great victory at Verneuil in 1424 seemed to have secured the future of the realm – until the unexpected arrival on the scene of an illiterate seventeen-year-old village girl from the marches of Lorraine who believed she was sent by God to raise the English siege of Orléans, crown the disinherited dauphin as true king of France and drive the English out of his realm.  The story of Jehanne d’Arc – better known to the English-speaking world today as Joan of Arc – is perhaps the most enduringly famous of the entire Hundred Years’ War. The fact that, against all the odds, she achieved two of her three aims in her brief career has raised her to iconic status, but it is the manner of her death, burned at the stake in Rouen by the English administration, which has brought her the crown of martyrdom and literally made her a saint in the Roman Catholic calendar. The terrible irony is that Jehanne’s dazzling achievements obscure the fact that they were of little long-term consequence: a ten-year-old Henry VI was crowned king of France just six months after her death and his kingdom endured for another twenty years.

Of far more consequence to the prosperity and longevity of the English kingdom of France was the defection of the ally who had made its existence possible. Philippe, duke of Burgundy, made his peace with Charles VII in 1435, just days after the death of Bedford. In the wake of the Treaty of Arras much of the English kingdom, including its capital, Paris, was swept away by the reunited and resurgent French but the reconquest stalled in the face of dogged resistance from Normandy and brilliant tactical military leadership from the “English Achilles”, John Talbot. For almost a decade it would be a war of attrition between the two ancient enemies, gains by each side compensating for their losses elsewhere, but no decisive actions tipping the balance of power.

Nevertheless, the years of unremitting warfare had their cost, imposing an unsustainable financial burden on England and Normandy, draining both realms of valuable resources, including men of the calibre of the earls of Salisbury and Arundel, who were both killed in action, and devastating the countryside and economy of northern France. The demands for peace became more urgent and increasingly voluble, though it was not until Henry VI came of age that anyone in England had the undisputed authority to make the concessions necessary to achieve a settlement.

The Truce of Tours, purchased by Henry’s marriage to Marguerite of Anjou, the infamous ‘she-wolf of France’, proved to be a disaster for the English. In his determination to procure peace at any price, the foolish young king secretly agreed to give up a substantial part of his inheritance: the county of Maine would return to French hands without compensation for its English settlers who had spent their lives in its defence.

Worse was to follow, for while the English took advantage of the truce to demobilise and cut taxes, Charles VII used it to rearm and reorganise his armies so that, when he found the excuse he needed to declare that the English had broken its terms, he was ready and able to invade with such overwhelming force that he swept all before him. The English kingdom of France which, against the odds, had survived for three decades, was crushed in just twelve months. 

#historyedit #litedit #hundred years' war #medieval #english history #french history #european history #history #history books #nanshe's graphics

[cincinnatusvirtue]

Eighty Years War (1568-1648):  Dutch Revolt and the establishment of a new republic...

The Low Countries in Europe have gone through a number of iterations over the years but one of the most seismic changes in its history took place over the course of the 16th & 17th centuries.  One that would result in the establishment of modern nation that despite it small size would go onto have a far reaching impact on world events...

Background:

-The Low Countries, modern day Netherlands, Belgium & Luxembourg were since the Middle Ages known by many names but much of the region was called Flanders, or divided into multiple provinces such as Brabant and Holland among others, there was a mix of people who practiced Catholicism, particularly in the south as well as Protestants in the wake of Martin Luther & John John Calvin, both of whom would have a lasting effect on the peoples of the Low Countries but mostly in the north  The most numerous group in the Low Countries was a Germanic people that became known as the Dutch.

-Its hard to pinpoint an exact consolidation of a modern Dutch identity as the Seventeen Provinces as they became known consisted of the Dutch and French speakers known as Walloons as well.  Nevertheless, by the 15th century, the provinces had definitely developed a distinct culture.  One that favored commerce, practiced a degree of relative tolerance and valued some level of independence or local autonomy.  This was recognized by Mary Valois-Burgundy, Duchess of Burgundy in 1477 with the so called Great Privilege decree.

-The decree in effect restored previous held levels of communal rights at the local level in the various Low Country provinces.  The Burgundians (Eastern France) had attempted to centralize like France had and this had lead to resentment.  Mary signed the charter for the Great Privilege against her own initials wishes and more as a matter of practicality, it also recognized the right of the States-General, an assembly-legislative body which made decisions for the Low Countries many provinces, to meet once more.  This embodied the Dutch desire for autonomy.

-Mary had married, Maximillian I Holy Roman Emperor & Archduke of Austria and member of the Hapsburg dynasty.  By rights of this marriage, the Low Countries became Hapsburg administered territories.  This was subsequently passed down to their heir Philip I of Castile, the Spanish Kingdom that united Spain with the Hapsburg lands.  Philip had married Joanna of Castile and together cemented the rule of their mutual territories.  Finally their son, Charles V, became Holy Roman Emperor & King of Spain by 1519 and with him he came to rule global Spanish Empire including vast European holdings, including the realm of his and his father’s birth, the Low Countries. 

-Charles considered the Low Countries and important component of his empire, they were for sentimental reasons a familial possession and the place of his birth and childhood.  More broadly, they served as an important center of trade and industry, commerce being very centrifugal to the identity of the Low Countries, an ethos that persists to the modern day.  His own interactions as ruler were to keep an element of toleration towards their autonomy while also putting down rebellions namely in Frisia.

-Charles’s son and heir in Spain was Philip II. The Holy Roman Empire’s imperial position was an electoral throne, more of a ceremonial first among equals position but not an emperor that held direct rule over the various fiefdoms and principalities of Central Europe.  Nevertheless, Spain had its own vast land holdings throughout the world and Philip ruled it at its true zenith. One of main aims in foreign policy were to promote Catholicism in the empire and project Catholic and by extension Spanish power throughout the world and in Europe especially with the development of a rivalry with Protestant England.

-Philip also inherited the Low Countries and his devout Catholicism and lack of growing up in the Low Countries started to put him at odds with a number of his subjects there.  It wasn’t an even split as there were many Catholics and and Protestants in the region who despite Philip’s increased heavy handedness in rule that remained loyal to him.

-Philip reverted to a more centralized form of rule, he increased taxation as he needed to fund his wars with England and other powers in Europe, he also began to persecute his Protestant subjects, mainly Dutch.  His appointees also based in Spain ruled with increasingly draconian measures such as executions of Dutch & Flemish (Dutch speakers in Flanders) alienated the local nobility.  Protestant clergy began preaching anti-Catholic & anti-Spanish rhetoric as the mostly Dutch speaking Protestants felt Philip was surrounded by evil advisors, ones who sought to remove their privileges, which they increasingly viewed as their rights, local  based autonomy, with rights to assembly, law making and tolerance of their religion.

War:

- 1568 saw open rebellion and Philip ordered his enforcer, the 3rd Duke of Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, also known as the Iron Duke to serve as governor of the Netherlands.  His enforcement was very pro-Catholic/Spanish and epitomized Spanish Hapsburg’s determination to maintain order, he had overseen trials and executions of those deemed seditious and imposed heavier new taxes.  This resulted in one of the Dutch nobles, William the Silent, Prince of Orange becoming the de-facto leader of the rebellion.

-William served not only as Prince of Orange but Stadtholder of the Provinces of Holland, Zeeland & Utrecht.  Previously, he worked side by side with the Hapsburgs including Philip’s sister, Margaret of Parma when tolerance and decentralization was more the norm.  As Philip changed tack towards more central authority a rift with William developed.

-Stadtholder originally meant a sort of local governor or steward, a caretaker position but in time would come to mean, more of a head of state, that would traditionally be associated with the House of Orange but always was a loosely defined role. More than anything it served symbolically as the state’s caretaker in terms of security. Real legal power rested with the States General which held legislative power over the republic in which they hoped to found, one made up of several united provinces.  

-William and his brother, Louis of Nassau with support from French Huguenots (Protestants) invaded portions of the northern Netherlands where they hoped support would be strongest.  The rebellion scored some success but it was severely tested at the Battle of Jemmingen in July 1568, where the Duke of Alba defeated the Dutch rebels handedly but Louis escaped.  There was a statue made by the Catholic supporters of Spanish rule made in Alba’s likeness out of bronze from the captured Dutch cannons (torn down in 1577).

-What followed was a series of alternating gains, negotiations, and renewing hostilities that would come to define the conflict.  From 1572 onward, William attempted usually through hit and run attacks to undermine Spanish rule.  He also needed to balance the competing interests of localities and their religious representation some Dutch Catholics also supported the rebellion along with Protestants and others didn’t, William needed supporters of the revolt to unite for it to work.  He tried effect religious unity and freedom manifest in his 1576 Pacification of Ghent declaration which rallied behind removal of Spanish troops but still failed to get support of religious tolerance.  The conflict was at some level devolving into a sectarian conflict as much as a nationalist one.  Nonetheless, a further defined Dutch identity was forged as a result and William would be declared in historical memory as “Father of the Fatherland.”

-John of Austria became the new governor of the Netherlands and in 1577 signed the Perpetual Edict which seemed to show compromise on the Spanish government’s part.  It would allow for Spanish troops to be removed from the Low Countries and renewed assemblage of the States General in exchange for a mutual recognition of the sovereignty of the king & promotion of Catholicism.  John however soon went back on this promise and attacked another area of Dutch resistance in Namur.  This in turn inflamed the spread of the rebellion.

-1579 saw the Union of Utrecht signed between Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, Brabant. Flanders & other areas and formed the sort of constitutional basis for the Dutch Republic whose goals beforehand weren’t so concretely defined.  This union served as a outright declaration of independence, forcing a united front no longer determined to wage war for compromise on rights with the king and within the context of remaining part of Spain’s empire, true independence was the goal now.  The Act of Abjuration further solidified this goal in 1581 accusing Philip of neglecting his sovereign responsibilities to his Dutch subjects and was therefore no longer fit to be their king.

-Philip declared William an outlaw and the Act of Abjuration renewed Spanish efforts to put down the rebellion, newer and larger efforts were being undertaken to suppress the rebellion.

-The Dutch got foreign help in finances from England and materials support from France both of which wanted to upset the balance of power in Europe which disproportionately sat with Spain.  By 1585, the northern provinces found themselves in a de-facto state of independence with became mostly centered around Dutch speaking Protestants with Catholic Dutch virtually all converting in the coming decades while the southern provinces still had a large Spanish garrison & remained a Catholic stronghold.

-In time, the Netherlands converted into a side theater for the French Wars of Religion.  This in turn allowed the Dutch to continue their war efforts and in the north practice their flourishing de-facto independence.

-The nascent Dutch Republic like the republics of Italy (Venice & Genoa) was very much a maritime power.  The northern provinces were able to blockade the estuary going to Spanish held Antwerp which in turn built up Amsterdam’s economy as mercantile community thrived and eventually a stock exchange was also forged.  While their independence wasn’t formal, it was increasingly becoming a reality for the northern provinces and the practice of a successful and capitalist economy built on trade was evidence of this.

-The Dutch built up their navy to protect their trade and a thriving privateer industry developed where Dutch government sponsored pirates could raid Spanish ships to aid in the sting of ongoing rebellion.  These privateers operated in the North Sea, English Channel and even in the Mediterranean, often basing themselves in North Africa and developed cultural and economic trade with the Barbary States who held religious and political grievances against Spain.  The Dutch navy would prove quite effective in draining Spanish resources

- In 1602, the government sponsored Dutch East India Company was founded and established colonial possessions in Africa, India and Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) which controlled the textile, spices and slave trade from these regions.  The Dutch West India Company followed in 1621 with settlement in the Americas namely in North America (modern day United States, especially New York City).

 -Dutch trade flourished and the military proved powerful, thanks to Spain’s ongoing commitment to fighting wars on multiple fronts against multiple powers and continuously meant that the Low Countries were increasingly made into a side show-backseat for Spanish foreign policy overall.  The Dutch did everything they could do drain Spain of her ability to fight, becoming a proverbial headache but not one the obstinance of Spain would be willing to recognize.

-Domestically, tranquil life in the de-facto independent Netherlands was captured in their art too.  As life in the canal lined cities of Amsterdam, Haarlem, Rotterdam and elsewhere was increasingly captured during the Eighty Years War period by a series of masterful painters and sculptors like Rembrandt, Vermeer & De Keyser among others.  Dutch architecture began to take on unique shape as well reflected in the Dutch cities with their preference for less ostentatious but stately brick building homes.

-This era of flourishing art, culture, economics and military power along with colonial projection became known as the Dutch Golden Age (circa 1581-1672) and the establishment of the Dutch Empire.

-1609 saw the Anglo-Franco brokered ceasefire and Twelve Years Truce which contributed largely to the Dutch Golden Age’s growing.

-By the 1620′s conflict had picked up in part of the greater European conflict of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) which started with Catholic and Protestant internal conflict within the Holy Roman Empire but soon dragged in all other European powers including the officially unresolved conflict between Spain & the Netherlands.

-Attempts at peace had been made but the religious obstacle of religious freedom for Catholics in the Protestant northern Netherlands and likewise religious freedom for Protestants in the Spanish controlled south were creating an impasse.  Additionally, issues over international trade routes and the seizures of Spanish-Portuguese colonies added to the tensions.

-With the resumption of war, Spain invaded the north once more but was reversed.  Furthermore, the Dutch took Brabant’s major city, Den Bosch.

-The Dutch countered into the south but failed to take its major cities of Brussels & Antwerp.  Furthermore, the heavily Catholic south was brought up with a relative loyalty to Spain and distrust of Dutch Protestants in the ensuing years of peace thanks to Spanish & Catholic education & propaganda.  The Dutch found themselves increasingly reconciled to the notion that the southern Netherlands were likely to remain separate but they too remained obstinate in the goal of independence for all.

-The Dutch continued to vie for control of Spanish colonies in the Americas, Asia & Africa through its union state Portugal’s possessions mostly rather than direct Spanish possessions.

-1639 saw the Battle of the Downs in the English Channel which stopped a 20,000 strong army being escorted by a new Spanish Armada and saved the north from direct invasion.  It also definitively ended Spain’s naval mastery of the global seas, something almost unrivaled since 1492.  Now Spain’s fleet was bypassed by Dutch, English and French navies.

 -1648 saw the official end of the Eighty Years War, largely thanks to French intervention which would split the southern portion of the Low Countries between them and the Dutch.  However, the end result was de-jure independence from the Spanish, in the Treaty of Munster, part of the Peace of Westphalia which negotiated the new peace between the many nations of Europe involved in the Thirty Years War, establishing a new geopolitical balance.

Aftermath:

-Spain’s position was greatly weakened by the Eighty Years/Thirty Years War, repeatedly bankrupted in the maintenance of its empire and constant wars. The Dutch Revolt turned into an almost intractable conflict that drained its resources and at times it seemed obstinate pride prolonged Spain’s ultimately unrealistic goals of total control.  Dutch independence was achieved through recurring foreign support, popular support among parts of the Dutch populace and a hit and run strategy that caused attrition against Spain while only facing a limited Spanish focus of attention at times.

-The Dutch were to enjoy the fruits of their independence only briefly however, as war with their former de-facto allies in England and alternatively France would result in the coming years, with the English over mercantile & trading rights in colonies and with the rise of Louis XIV in France who sought control of the balance of power in Europe, like the Spanish using a Catholic religious-political outlook to fuel more wars.  The Dutch resented French control of the Southern Netherlands and in their desire to unite all the Low Countries, would come to partake in the many wars of the coming decades.

-The Dutch Republic or Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Guelders, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel, Frisia & Groningen) consolidated a modern Dutch identity, it reflected a people’s ethos which survives culturally to varying degrees today with ideals of tolerance, commerce and relaxed regulations tempered by strong senses of independence & stern Calvinism.  The Dutch Republic and the Dutch Revolt which gave birth to it would also give influence to Enlightenment era values in the 18th century.  Most manifest in the ideals of capitalism, tolerance & challenging the divine rights of kings by the right of assembly and local representation.  All these ideals would be further distilled on perhaps a grander scale in the formation of the United States of America a century and half after the Peace of Westphalia, further showcasing the Dutch’s outsized influence on the world...

#dutch republic #The Enlightenment #16th century #17th century #18th century #eighty years war #thirty years war #peace of westphalia #hapsburg #house of orange #vermeer #rembrandt #dutch #spanish #spanish empire #military history #netherlands #spain #flanders

[scotianostra]

30th March 1406 saw James I captured by pirates on his way to France.

Another post that I have mentioned at least twice in the past couple of weeks, what with his brothers suspicious death, and his appearance on the battlefields of France during the 100 year war.

So as not to bore you with just the story of James's captivity etc again I thought I'd go through the Stewarts, well the James's in the Stewarts anyway......

Some of you might recall that James father Robert III had chosen to be King Robert as John was supposedly an unlucky name for a King of Scotland, well I would argue James would turn out to be even more unlucky.

James I set the tone for the calamities to come. When he was twelve years old his father Robert III attempted to send him to France to protect him from the plots of his ambitious uncle but his ship was captured by the English en route and Henry IV of England imprisoned him. Robert III reportedly died of grief when he heard the news and James became king in captivity in 1406. He remained a ‘guest’ of the English for 18 years and didn’t return to Scotland until 1424. James attempted to rule justly but alienated his nobles who resented his strict system of government.

A plot was hatched to murder him and on 20 February 1437 assassins attacked James in his bedchamber. He tried to escape through a sewer but he had recently blocked a part of it off to prevent tennis balls escaping and he was caught and murdered with 16 stab wounds.

Next came James II. The new king was a tough character who brutally asserted his power over his nobles. On one occasion he participated in the gruesome murder of the Earl of Douglas where the earl’s brain was cleaved out with an axe. However, James’s time ran out when he got involved in the English Wars of the Roses and attempted to retake Roxburgh Castle.

James was fascinated by artillery and used cannon to bombard the fortress. One of them accidentally exploded next to him and the king’s thighbone was decapitated. James died quickly afterwards.

Next up was James number three who took the throne aged nine. James III was another unpopular Stewart King who displeased his subjects by pursuing unpopular English alliances and was arrested on one occasion by his disgruntled nobles. Eventually they broke out in open rebellion with the king’s eldest son James as their figurehead. James III was defeated at the Battle of Sauchieburn and killed soon afterwards, reputedly by a rebel pretending to be a priest. His heir James IV(r.1488-1513) later regretted his role in the rebellion and wore a heavy chain around his waist for the rest of his life as a penance.

James IV was arguably the most loved of all our Stewart kings, the country enjoyed a Renaissance, expanded its borders and was relatively at peace. He could speak several languages and was the last Scottish king to speak Gaelic. James was a notably effective ruler who built a strong navy and was an advocate of the printing press. Scotland benefited from having a Renaissance king but ultimately he suffered the same grisly fate as his forebears. In 1513 he invaded England while Henry VIII was campaigning in France and suffered a disastrous defeat at Flodden where he became the last British king to be killed in battle. His body was found with many wounds from arrows and billhooks. Once again the new King of Scotland was a minor (17 months old) and also called James.

Like his father, James V was quite an accomplished monarch who was nicknamed the “King of the Commons” in reference to his reputed concern for his subjects and was a patron of the arts. However he too was destroyed by wars with Henry VIII. Henry was James’s uncle and expected his nephew to join in the disestablishment of church revenues that were consuming England. When James refused to do the same in Scotland war broke and the Scots were heavily defeated at Solway Moss in 1542. James’s health, which was already wracked with fever, broke down completely after the defeat and he died three weeks later leaving a six-day old daughter to inherit the throne. The infant girl was proclaimed as Mary, Queen of Scots, breaking the long line of James's but there were more to come......

James VI was one of the most important monarchs in our history. He was the only son of Mary and Lord Darnley who had been murdered shortly after his birth. After his mother’s abdication and exile James grew up without parental guidance but reached his majority in the 1580s. In 1603 he also became King James I of England upon the death of Elizabeth I and the two kingdoms suddenly shared the same monarch. James was a conflicting personality whose faults were legion but he was also relatively enlightened. He sort of broke the mould of the unlucky Kings, but he wasn't a nice person, he persecuted women as witches and did little to stop the persecution of Catholics. He was also at loggerheads with Parliament on more than one occasion. His seemingly split personality resulted in him being nicknamed, “the wisest fool in Christendom” and when he died in his bed in 1625 he achieved what all other previous King James’s had failed to do: survive and leave a peaceful kingdom with an adult heir. Indeed, he had gone much further and died the ruler of three kingdoms: Scotland, Ireland and England.

The last King James of Scotland was Charles I second son James VII. Like his father and grandfather James had notoriously difficult relations with Parliament and like his great-grandmother Mary he was a fervent Catholic, which put him at great odds with his Protestant subjects. Within three years of his succession he was deposed in the “Glorious Revolution” by the combined forces of Parliament and William of Orange and James fled into permanent exile in France. The Stewart dynasty, which had ruled in Scotland since 1371, was now on the way to dynastic oblivion and James VII died in 1701 a very disappointed man. The curse was complete and there has never been another King James of Scotland.

Of course the Jacobites out there might ask of James VIII, but he was never crowned as King and never really ruled, sorry.

#Scotland #History #The Stewarts #the james's

[km-french-house]

Hauts-de-France

Hauts-de-France is a region of France created by the territorial reform of the Regions in 2014, from a merger of Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Picardy. The new region came into existence on 1 January 2016.

The major dates that marked the Hauts-de-France region.

Prehistory

The oldest vestiges known in our region, a few bifaces and flint kidneys alongside elephant and hippopotamus bones, date back to - 700,000 years in Wimereux.

Around 3000 BC, populations from the south populated the region.

The 3rd and 2nd centuries with JC mark the arrival of the Belgians. The reputation of prosperity of the territories of the North fuels the lust of the Romans and the battles are frequent and murderous. The flow of invaders will then come mainly from the east. The region is particularly enriched by these different cultures. In 57 BC, Julius Caesar subjected the people of Gaul to Belgium, including the Ambiani or Ambiens (Amiénois) and the Bellovaci or Bellovaques (Beauvaisiens).

From the Romans to the francs (from 0 to 500 AD)

The pax romana

In the Gallo-Roman times, the region is encompassed in a vast ensemble called Belgium, and divided into cities. Life, however, remains essentially rural, centered on two resources: wheat and wool. Prosperity translates into significant demographic development.

A bilingual region

From the third century, Franks and Alamans invaded and plundered the territory. The devastations were so important that the region had to be recolonized and that the Romans, overwhelmed by the size of the frontiers of the Empire, left the Franks to settle, preferring to make allies. Thus, along the Lys, a linguistic frontier separates the Germanic dialect spoken by the Franks (who will become Flemish) and the Latin language from which French will be born.

The new invaders

At the beginning of the 5th century, a succession of invaders swept Romanism and Christianity ... One of them, Clovis, sprang from Tournai to achieve the almost total conquest of Gaul, while the Roman Empire of the West completed To collapse. The Francs Saliens settled in 486 on the Somme. Clovis expands his kingdom by the battle of Soissons during which he defies the troops of the Gallo-Roman leader Syagrius. He then made Soissons his capital before moving his residence to Paris in 493.

The country Franc (from 500 to 1000)

The slow emergence

The territory is bilingual, Romanesque and Germanic. Christianity is slow even though the seventh century represents the golden age for missionary monasteries. It is in these sanctuaries that art and culture develop. Towards the VIIIth and IXth centuries, the low Flemish countries awoke in their turn and shopping centers appeared.

The Great Score

In 843, the division of the empire of Charlemagne made the Scheldt the frontier between France and the Holy German Empire. This division will have far-reaching consequences for the region since the fate of Hainaut and Cambrésis will be very different from that of Artois and Flanders for centuries.

Medieval architecture

The transport of goods often borrowed from the watercourses, the slightest difference in level is a place of bursting of charges which then becomes an agglomeration to be defended by military structures. This is the case of Lille, whose first mention is made in 1066. Other cities such as Valenciennes, Saint-Omer and Arras are growing and the population is growing. Of the land to be cultivated to nourish it. The authority of a lineage of counts of Flanders was then organized, making the territory a quasi-autonomous principality from 884.

At the death of the last Carolingian, Louis V said the Fainéant, Hugues Capet, great-grandson of Heribert I de Vermandois, was crowned king at Noyon in 987.

The territorial principalities (from 1000 to 1369)

The Power of Cities

The demographic dynamism of the region is commensurate with its economic and political success. Arras is thus an economic and cultural center of the highest importance in the Christian world. The powerful cities then opposed the counts to obtain communal privileges, which the King of France will profit by intervening in the affairs of his powerful vassal.

The fragility of a border

The thirteenth century saw the advent of cities, which acquired considerable privileges, and in which the belfries flourished. The nobles become impoverished while the bourgeois, jealous of their independence, tighten their corporate and family ties. In 1280, as a result of serious social unrest, the war resumed between the King of France and the Flemings. Philip the Fair annihilated all resistance, annexed almost all French-speaking Flanders, and named a reliable ally at the head of the county.

From deadly battles to severe shortages, the economic consequences are terrible: Flanders loses its supremacy in the textile industry, and Artois in turn abandons its economic role. It was in this context that the Hundred Years War began in 1337. This will be a disaster for the region, which is the scene of many military operations. The siege of Calais, which became English for two centuries, took its toll on the development of the other towns of Artois. The Black Plague, which spread in 1348, will also wreak havoc in the region for more than a century, while at the same time horrendous weather conditions are falling, causing murderous famine. Social revolts multiply amidst misery and widespread economic slump.

1066: Guillaume de Normandie embarks in Saint-Valery-sur-Somme for the conquest of England.

1218: Bishop of Amiens, Evrard de Fouilloy, decides to raise a new church to replace the Roman building destroyed by a fire. He entrusted the plans of the cathedral of Amiens to Robert de Luzarches who, with the help of Thomas and Renaud de Cormont, completed the construction of the masterpiece in 1254, a record of rapidity. In 1247, the site of the cathedral of Beauvais was opened.

Towards 1225: At the University of Paris, students from the North of France constitute the Picardy nation.

1346: King Plantagenet Edward III of England, who claims to succeed to the throne of France by his mother, lands in Normandy and confronts King Philip VI of Valois to Crécy. After the victory of its troops, the English administration controlled a region called "Picardy" from 1347 to 1558.

The land of great debates (1369-1555)

The Burgundian epoch

Philippe le Hardi, son-in-law of Charles V, inherited in 1384 from Flanders and Artois. The northern territories, which became the jewel of the House of Burgundy, knew the age of the Burgundian power even though threats of war, natural disasters and economic and demographic crisis were still very present.

The battle of Azincourt against the English troops in 1415 was a disaster for the French nobility, which did not prevent Burgundy from extending further to Boulogne-sur-Mer and then to Hainaut. The end of the Hundred Years War was signed in 1475.

The empire

With the alliance of the heiress of Burgundy and the future Emperor Maximilian of Austria, the region was then excluded from the French domain for two centuries. Becoming a mere pawn on the European chessboard, it will be the scene of devastating war episodes until 1713.

In 1520, the region welcomed near Calais the Camp of the Drap d'Or which will see the failure of the wishes of Francis I to ally with England to oppose the ambitions of Charles V.

The latter continues his conquests. In 1548 he baptized all his properties in the north "the circle of Burgundy". In fact, the former Netherlands extend to Hainaut and Artois.

In 1555, Charles V abdicated in favor of his son Philip II who will reign over the Netherlands, Spain and Franche-Comté for forty years. In 1558, Calais was taken over by the French.

1529: Calvin flees from Noyon to Strasbourg and Geneva.

1539: By the edict of Villers-Cotterêts, French becomes the national legal language in place of Latin.

From Spain to France (1555-1713)

Secession of the Netherlands

1568: The Protestants confronted Philip II and became masters of Holland and Zeeland.

1579: Catholics and Protestants clash. This was the beginning of an 80-year-old war that led to the split of the Netherlands in 1648.

1594: Amiens, Laon, Soissons, bastion towns of the League and Princes Ligueurs (Condé and Guise), resist, among the last, the new king Henri IV. The latter put an end to the wars of religion and took in 1598 the Edict of Nantes, assuring the freedom of cult to the Protestants.

The Spanish Netherlands

1598-1633: Offered as a dowry to the Spanish archdukes, the region will experience an era of prosperity and peace thanks to the generosity of a government with little presence.

The French annexation

1635: After this brief respite for the region, the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV will be a new era of almost 90 years of hard fights, sieges, looting, diplomatic break-ups and misery.

1665: Louis XIV granted the privilege of making cloths, way of Holland and Spain, to the Zeeland industrialist Josse van Robais, who settles down in Abbeville.

1688-1713: The regional population underwent repeated assaults by the Dutch, anxious to regain their lands, until 1713, which saw the conclusion of the Treaty of Utrecht concerning the delimitation of the frontiers. The Nord-Pas de Calais is then drawn along a complex boundary unfavorable to its economic interests.

The North of France (1713-1815)

1713-1788: Regional industries, deprived of their natural outlets, are going through a difficult period. Agriculture, for its part, is experiencing spectacular progress thanks to the introduction of new techniques, while the mining area begins its fantastic adventure, ensuring the parallel development of metallurgy. Lille is home to Europe's largest ceramics factory.

1788: The economic prosperity regained concerns the regional population only by far. The indigence remains great, especially as population growth is important. The scarcity that shakes the kingdom in this pre-revolutionary year is very hardly felt in Nord-Pas de Calais.

1789: The Revolution, which has concentrated mainly on the symbols of the Church, will have little effect on the regional territory. On the other hand, the creation of the two departments, their division as the choice of prefectures, aroused serious quarrels.

1790: The province of Picardie is separated from the Boulonnais and breaks out into three departments (the Aisne, the Somme and the Oise).

1792-1794: The region is invaded twice by the Austrian army. The siege of Lille will end in sealing an enthusiastic patriotic feeling.

1799: Bonaparte is welcomed by the region sick of the errors of the Terror and eager for peace. The notables occupy very quickly the most important posts of the departmental administration.

1810: The development of the cotton industry, of mining research, and the new sugar beet cultivation ensure the economic take-off of the Nord-Pas de Calais.

The first factory in the country (1815-1914)

1815-1848: The region became the "first factory in France". The overall economic success has been strengthened by measures of cus- toms protectionism, the import of advanced technologies from England and labor from overcrowded Belgium, a dynamic bourgeoisie and mineral wealth. Many industries such as glass and paper mills are flourishing while communication routes are improving considerably. In 1846 the Paris-Lille railway line was inaugurated. The rural world is not left behind; The region is indeed also the first "farm of France".

1845: The first northern railway is built, financed by the Rotschild Company. Paris-Amiens, inaugurated in 1846, takes 4 hours and 40 minutes.

1850: Exploitation of the Pas-de-Calais coalfield, which will take on the face that is still its own today, while other cities in the region are taking off thanks to the expansion of the textile industry.

1871: At the end of the battle of the North against the Prussians, lost by Faidherbe, the department of the Somme is placed in the occupied zone.

At the dawn of the 20th century, the region is at the height of its power.

[blackwatchmase]

Knowledge versus faith Bible: Allegorical Literature The Bible – Allegorical Literature bullet #1 Constantine I – Invaded Egypt; legalized Christianity, and formulated/plagiarized the Bible using Pyramid Texts bullet #2 European Pharaohs (Ptolemy) Occupied EgyptAdam – Origin of European mankind bullet #3 Abraham - First Jew – No mention of bloodline or genealogy in Bible texts. bullet #4 Russian Jews – Khazar (No bloodline to Abraham); didn’t come into existence until 6th century AD bullet #5 German Jews – Ashkenazim (No bloodline to Abraham); didn’t come into existence until 6th Century AD. bullet #6 Old Testament – Wrote Jews into existence (Testaments written in Hieroglyphic Language) bullet The Book of Exodus was written before the Book of Genesis – Abraham was not born yet? Did the Exodus of the Jewish people take place? bullet #7 Christianity – European Imperialism Founded bullet #8 Manifest Destiny - Remaking and Redeeming the world in the image of Europe bullet #9 Bible (King James Version) 1611 bullet #10 England’s King James I ordered and financed the now most-widely read version of the Bible. Before James came Mary Stuart, King Henry III, II, I, King John (signer of the Magna Carta) and back to the Plantagenet and Habsburg dynasties under the Roman Empire. bullet #11 Serapis Christus 135 BCE – Greco-Roman (Jesus Christ) bullet #12 Original New Testament written by the Piso Family of Rome (Written in Greek) bullet #13 Genetic Roots of the Ashkenazi Jews Most Ashkenazi Jews are maternally descended from prehistoric Europeans and not descended from the ancient tribes of Israel. The first five chapters of the Bible are called Book of Moses (Pentateuch), but Jews didn’t come into existence until 861 AD. Bulan Sabriel was the first Khazar King. He led the conversion of Khazars to Judaism. He adopted Judaism for the Jews. How can the first five books of the Old Testament be called the “Books of Moses” when Moses was born 147 years after the writing of these books? European Jews do not show up until the sixth century AD, but in the Bible supposedly written from the Pyramid Texts dating c. 2400-2300 BC – Genesis - Chapter 10: Now these are the generations of the sons of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth: and unto them were sons born after the flood. 10:03: And the sons of Gomer; Ashkenaz, and Riphath, and Togarmah (4000 years ago). How is that possible? The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a Hellenistic empire based in Egypt creating Greek cities and nations in Asia and Africa. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was founded in 305 BCE by Ptolemy I Soter. He declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt and created a powerful European dynasty that ruled an area stretching from southern Syria to Cyrene and south to Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a major center of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the indigenous Egyptian populace, the Ptolemy named themselves successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemy’s took on Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life. Ptolemy I Soter I (the Savior), also known as Ptolemy c. 367 BC – 283 BC was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great who became ruler of Egypt (323–283 BC) and founder of both the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Dynasty and demanded the title “pharaoh.” Arius of Libya (256-336 AD) was a popular preacher from Alexandria, Egypt who taught that Christ was not divine but created which made him a primary topic of the First Council of Nicea convened by Roman Emperor Constantine in AD 325. Alexander assembled a council of Egyptian bishops in 320 and toppled Arius for heresy. Arius fought back and went to Palestine canvassing support from other Eastern bishops. Arius' theology taught there was a time before the Son of God, when only God the Father existed. the debate over the Son’s precise relationship to the Father. The Arian (Arius) concept of Christ is that the Son of God did not always exist, but was created by—and is therefore distinct from—God the Father. This belief is grounded in the Gospel of John (14:28): "You heard me say, 'I am going away and I am coming back to you.' If you loved me, you would be glad that I am going to the Father, for the Father is greater than I." The patriarch of the Hebrew Jews is Amenemhet the first and that his biblical name is Abraham. Egyptology experts interpret this as factual evidence the biblical Jacob and the hyksos King Yakubher were one of the same. Moses closely matches Thutmosis the third, even the names Moses and Thutmosis are almost identical. The resulting shortened chronology identifies Pharaoh Hatshepsut as the Queen of Sheba, while her sister Neferbity was probably the daughter of Pharaoh (Thutmosis I) whom King Solomon married. The great pharaoh Thutmosis III would have been the pharaoh named in the Bible as Shishak who looted Jerusalem. Pharaoh Amenhotep II was probably the king named in the Bible as Zerah, the Ethiopian who fought against King Solomon’s great grandson, King Asa. Pharaoh Sesostris I is identified as the pharaoh who appointed Joseph over Egypt, with Joseph himself possibly being identified as Mentuhotep, Sesostris’ vizier or prime minister. Sesostris III would have been the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelite slaves, and Sobekneferu, the daughter of Amenemhet III, was the princess who rescued Moses from the Nile. Neferhotep I was the pharaoh who refused to let the Israelites go and who subsequently drowned in the Red Sea with his army. The Amalekites were the mysterious Hyksos who invaded Egypt after the Egyptian army was destroyed. Going further back in history, Khufu was probably the pharaoh that Abraham met when he visited Egypt. Biblical Characters are based on Egyptian Pharaohs (Jacob: 1758 – 1611 BC, King Yakubher reign: 1655 – 1646 BC) (King David reign: 1012 – 962 BC, Psusennes reign: 1039-991 BC) (Moses: 1527 – 1407 BC, Thutmose the third reign: 1479 - 1425 BC) (Abraham: 2055 – 1880 BC, Amenemhet the first reign: 1991 – 1962 BC) (King Solomon reign: 970 – 931 BC, Siamun reign: 978 – 959 BC) One common link in this bloodline is Philip of Macedonia (382-336BC), who married Olympias, and their son was Alexander the Great (356-323BC), who plundered that key region of Greece, Persia, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, Babylon, the former lands of Sumer, and across into India before dying in Babylon at the age of 33. During his rule of Egypt he founded the city of Alexandria, one the greatest centers for esoteric knowledge in the ancient world. The bloodline and the hidden advanced knowledge have always gone together. This key bloodline comes down through the most famous Egyptian queen, Cleopatra (60-30BC), who married the Roman Emperor, Julius Caesar, and bore him a son, who became Ptolemy XIV. She also bore twins with Mark Anthony, who has his own connections to this line and its many offshoots; this bloodline connects to Herod the Great, the "Herod" of the Jesus stories, and continues to the Roman Piso family who, as wrote the Gospel stories and invented the mythical figure called Jesus!!; the same bloodline includes Constantine the Great, the Roman Emperor who, in 325AD, turned Christianity, based on his ancestors' stories, into the religion we know today, and King Ferdinand of Spain and Queen Isabella of Castile, the sponsors of Christopher Columbus, who instigated the horrific Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834) in which people were tortured and burned at the stake for in any way questioning the basis of the religion their various ancestors had created. The most used version of the Bible (King James Bible) was commissioned and sponsored by another strand in the same bloodline, King James 1st of England. Just a coincidence? The line of James, according to genealogy sources listed below, can be traced back to 1550 BC and beyond and includes many Egyptian pharaohs, including Rameses II and currently every American President. This bloodline also includes the Habsburgs, the most powerful family in Europe under the Holy Roman Empire; Geoffrey Plantagenet. The royal Plantagenet dynasty in England; King John signed the Magna Carta, King Henry I, II and III, which was extremely close to the Tempelknäktarna (Knights Templar) and King John, Mary Stuart and the Stuart Dynasty, including King James I of England, was the sponsor the King James Bible version, King George I, II and III, Edward I, II and III, Queen Victoria, Edward VII, George V and VI, Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Charles and Elizabeth's other offspring, Anne, Andrew and Edward, Princes William and Harry from Charles' marriage to Princess Diana. Findings from The Scientist (2012) contradict previous assertions that Ashkenazi mitochondrial lineages originated in the Near East. It also refutes the notion lineages originated from mass conversions to Judaism in the Khazar Kingdom which is an empire in the north Caucasus region between Europe and Asia lasting from the 7th century to the 11th century whose leaders adopted Judaism. The findings were that most of the maternal lineages don’t trace to the north Caucasus, which would be a proxy for the Khazariam, or to the Near East, but most of them emanate from Europe. 22 Books mentioned in the Bible that are not part of the "Today's Bible": bullet 1. Book of the Covenant - Exodus 24:7 bullet 2. Book of the Wars of the Lord - Numbers 21:14 bullet 3. Book of Jasher - Joshua 10:13 & 2 Samuel 1:18 bullet 4. The Manner of the Kingdom / Book of Statutes - 1 Samuel 10:25 bullet 5. Book of Samuel the Seer - 1 Chronicles 29:29 bullet 6. Nathan the Prophet - 1 Chronicles 29:29 & 2 Chronicles 9:29 bullet 7. Acts of Solomon - 1 Kings 11:41 bullet 8. Shemaiah the Prophet - 2 Chronicles 12:15 bullet 9. Prophecy of Abijah - 2 Chronicles 9:29 bullet 1 Story of Prophet Iddo - 2 Chronicles 13:22 bullet 1 Visions of Iddo the Seer - 2 Chronicles 9:29 bullet 1 Iddo Genealogies - 2 Chronicles 12:15 bullet 1 Book of Jehu - 2 Chronicles 20:34 bullet 1 Sayings of the Seers - 2 Chronicles 33:19 bullet 1 Book of Enoch - Jude 1:14 bullet 1 Book of Gad the Seer - 1 Chronicles 29:29 bullet 1 Epistle to Corinth - 1 Corinthians 5:9 bullet 1 Epistle to the Ephesians - Ephesians 3:3 bullet 1 Epistle from Laodicea to the Colossians - Colossians 4:16 bullet 2 Nazarene Prophecy Source - Matthew 2:23 bullet 2 Acts of Uziah - 2 Chronicles 26:22 bullet The Annals of King David - 1 Chronicles 27:24 bullet 2 Jude, the Missing Epistle - Jude 1:3 References http://www.answering-christianity.com/lost_books.htm http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/37821/title/Genetic-Roots-of-the-Ashkenazi-Jews/