#jabir ibn hayyan

[cryptotheism]

Oh my god. You know the classical metals right? Gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, iron? Sometimes mercury?

Legendary Islamic alchemist Jabir Ibn-Hayyan adds an extra one, “khar sini" literally "Chinese Iron", and we have no idea what material he is talking about.

(From the Dictionary of Western Esotericism and Gnosis p.28)

STILL UNIDENTIFIED

Its not mercury either. The same textual corpus identifies mercury as a "spirit" as in a volatile substance like sulfur or arsenic.

#alchemy

[the-blog-of-the-nut]

Aguas con el mercurio rojo,

Durante siglos han persistido los rumores sobre una sustancia poderosa y misteriosa. Y en estos días, los anuncios y videos que lo ofrecen a la venta se pueden encontrar en línea. ¿Por qué ha perdurado la historia del "mercurio rojo"?

Hay quienes creen que es un elixir curativo mágico que se encuentra enterrado en la boca de las momias egipcias antiguas.

¿O será un material nuclear poderoso que podría disparar el apocalipsis como algunos aseguran?

Sin embargo, hay un pequeño problema con todas esas aseveraciones: el mercurio rojo no existe. A pesar de ello, puedes encontrarlo en las redes sociales y en numerosos sitios web. Cantidades pequeñas de la mítica sustancia a veces se ofrecen a un precio de miles de dólares.

Muchos de los anuncios muestran una foto borrosa de un glóbulo de líquido rojo en un plato. Junto a él, a menudo hay un número de teléfono garabateado en una hoja de papel, por si alguien lo suficientemente ingenuo quiere contactar al vendedor.

"Solo compradores serios", se lee en un anuncio. "Necesitamos pruebas de fondos para dar pruebas del producto".

La impresión dada es que se ofrece una mercancía misteriosa e ilícita. "Es una estafa y el riesgo es que engañen o le roben a la gente", dice Lisa Wynn, jefa del departamento de antropología de la Universidad Macquarie en Sídney, Australia.

En pos del mercurio rojo Wynn oyó hablar del fenómeno por primera vez cuando trabajaba en las pirámides de Giza en Egipto y compartía una oficina con el destacado egiptólogo Dr. Zahi Hawass.

Un día, el Hawass recibió la visita de un príncipe saudita cuya madre estaba en coma. "Este hombre había gastado todas sus energías y dinero tratando de encontrar algo que salvara a su madre", recuerda la antropóloga. "Finalmente había recurrido a un jeque en Arabia Saudita, un curandero, quien le había dicho que había una sustancia mágica enterrada en las gargantas de las momias en el antiguo Egipto. Le indicó que si iba a Egipto y hablaba con ese arqueólogo, él podría proporcionarle mercurio rojo".

Pero eso no fue lo que ocurrió. "Hawass le dijo: 'Siento mucho lo de tu madre, pero eso es una tontería: no existe el mercurio rojo'". Tras presenciar la escena, la asombrada Wynn descubrió que esa no era una experiencia nueva para Hawass y sus colegas. Se enteró de que a menudo conocían árabes que creían que el mercurio rojo era una cura mágica que había sido enterrada con los faraones. Los orígenes de esta creencia son confusos. Se pueden encontrar indicios en el trabajo del alquimista y filósofo medieval Jabir ibn Hayyan, quien escribió: "Los elixires más preciosos que jamás se hayan mezclado en la Tierra estaban ocultos en las pirámides".

Una historia de vampiros En tiempos más recientes, algunos de los que buscan mercurio rojo han llegado a creer que también se puede encontrar en los nidos de murciélagos. El inconveniente es que los murciélagos en realidad no hacen nidos, pero eso no ha impedido que los cazadores de fortuna perturben sus hábitats para buscar el mítico elemento escarlata. Algunos han llevado la teoría de los murciélagos un paso más allá y afirman que el mercurio rojo proviene de los murciélagos vampiros. Dentro de esa lógica, la sustancia exhibe las mismas propiedades que los vampiros de películas de terror. Por lo general, una gota roja, que a menudo parece sospechosamente creada con gráficos de video, se ve repelida por el ajo y atraída por el oro. Cuando está frente a un espejo, la gota aparentemente no tiene reflejo. Las cualidades supuestamente sorprendentes del mercurio rojo no terminan ahí. Se alega que tiene poderes para convocar seres sobrenaturales. En 2009, se difundió una historia en Arabia Saudita de que el mercurio rojo se podía obtener sin entrar en una tumba antigua o tamizar el guano de murciélago. Se rumoreaba que se encontraron pequeñas cantidades de la preciada sustancia dentro de las máquinas de coser Singer antiguas. La policía comenzó a investigar el engaño después de que esos objetos domésticos tan comunes comenzaron a cambiar de manos por decenas de miles de dólares. Pánico por mercurio rojo En algunos momentos de la historia, los rumores sobre la sustancia se han multiplicado a causa de la geopolítica global. A fines de la década de 1980, cuando los gobiernos comunistas colapsaron en Europa del Este, hubo incertidumbre sobre lo que estaba sucediendo con sus existencias de material nuclear. En ese momento, Mark Hibbs era un periodista que investigaba rumores alarmantes de que extraños individuos ofrecían a la venta un material nuclear previamente desconocido, creado en laboratorios soviéticos. En ese caso, la versión de la historia del mercurio rojo era diferente de la del elixir curativo enterrado con los faraones. Se decía que el mercurio rojo soviético era destructivo, capaz de causar una tremenda explosión nuclear con cantidades no mayores que una pelota de béisbol. El escenario de pesadilla era que esta sustancia llegara al mercado negro de armas y terminara en manos de grupos violentos o estados corruptos. Sin embargo, Mark Hibbs dice que cuando los gobiernos occidentales investigaron, concluyeron que el mentado material con el potencial para acabar con el mundo no existía. Facebook y Twitter dijeron que habían asumido una postura dura contra la actividad fraudulenta, y eliminado los anuncios rojos de mercurio que les señalamos. Cabe aclarar antes de finalizar que sí existe un mineral de color rojo que contiene mercurio: el sulfuro de mercurio. Pero comparado al mitológico mercurio rojo, es una sustancia mundana.

Aunque es muy útil para decorar cerámica, no cura nada; de hecho, puede llegar a ser perjudicial para la salud, no porque sea altamente explosivo, sino porque el mercurio -ese que ese plateado- de por sí lo es.

#chapaabajolostigres

[loverandservantoftheahlulbayt]

🕊🍃 Nahjal Balagha 🍃🕊🍃

🍃 Part 1 🍃

The Sermons

Sharif Razi

🍃 Sermon 3: By Allah, the son of Abu Quhafah….

Known as the Sermon of ash-Shiqshiqiyah1

ومن خطبة له (عليه السلام) المعروفة بالشِّقْشِقِيَّة

وتشتمل على الشكوى من أمر الخلافة ثم ترجيح صبره عنها ثم مبايعة الناس له

Beware! By Allah, the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr)2 dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill. The flood water flows down from me and the bird cannot fly upto me. I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it.

Then I began to think whether I should assault or endure calmly the blinding darkness of tribulations wherein the grown up are made feeble and the young grow old and the true believer acts under strain till he meets Allah (on his death).

أَمَا وَالله لَقَدْ تَقَمَّصَها ابْنُ اَبى قُحافَةَ ، وَإِنَّهُ لَيَعْلَمُ أَنَّ مَحَلِّيَ مِنهَا مَحَلُّ القُطْبِ مِنَ الرَّحَا، يَنْحَدِرُ عَنِّي السَّيْلُ، وَلا يَرْقَى إِلَيَّ الطَّيْرُ، فَسَدَلْتُ دُونَهَا ثَوْباً، وَطَوَيْتُ عَنْهَا كَشْحاً، وَطَفِقْتُ أَرْتَئِي بَيْنَ أَنْ أَصُولَ بِيَد جَذَّاءَ، أَوْ أَصْبِرَ عَلَى طَخْيَة عَمْيَاءَ، يَهْرَمُ فيهَا الكَبيرُ، وَيَشِيبُ فِيهَا الصَّغِيرُ، وَيَكْدَحُ فِيهَا مُؤْمِنٌ حَتَّى يَلْقَى رَبَّهُ.

🍃 Proposes Patience in Absence of Supporters

ترجيح الصبرعلى فقد الاعوان

I found that endurance thereon was wiser. So I adopted patience although there was pricking in the eye and suffocation (of mortification) in the throat. I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.

(Then he quoted al-A’sha’s verse):

My days are now passed on the camel’s back (in difficulty) while there were days (of ease) when I enjoyed the company of Jabir’s brother Hayyan.3

فَرَأَيْتُ أَنَّ الصَّبْرَ عَلَى هَاتَا أَحْجَى، فَصَبَرتُ وَفي الْعَيْنِ قَذىً، وَفي الحَلْقِ شَجاً، أرى تُرَاثي نَهْباً، حَتَّى مَضَى الاْوَّلُ لِسَبِيلِهِ، فَأَدْلَى بِهَا إِلَى ابْنِ الْخَطّابِ بَعْدَهُ. ( ثم تمثل بقول الاعشى):

شَتّانَ ما يَومي عَاى كُوْرِها * و يَوْمُ حَيَّانَ أخي جابِرِ

It is strange that during his lifetime he wished to be released from the caliphate but he confirmed it for the other one after his death. No doubt these two shared its udders strictly among themselves. This one put the Caliphate in a tough enclosure where the utterance was haughty and the touch was rough. Mistakes were in plenty and so also the excuses therefore. One in contact with it was like the rider of an unruly camel. If he pulled up its rein the very nostril would be slit, but if he let it loose he would be thrown. Consequently, by Allah people got involved in recklessness, wickedness, unsteadiness and deviation.

فَيَا عَجَباً!! بَيْنَا هُوَ يَسْتَقِيلُها في حَيَاتِهِ إِذْ عَقَدَهَا لاخَرَ بَعْدَ وَفَاتِهِ ـ لَشَدَّ مَا تَشَطَّرَا ضَرْعَيْهَا ! ـ فَصَيَّرَهَا في حَوْزَة خَشْنَاءَ، يَغْلُظُ كَلْمُهَا، وَيَخْشُنُ مَسُّهَا، وَيَكْثُرُ العِثَارُ فِيهَا وَالاْعْتَذَارُ مِنْهَا، فَصَاحِبُهَا كَرَاكِبِ الصَّعْبَةِ، إِنْ أَشْنَقَ لَهَا خَرَمَ، وَإِنْ أَسْلَسَ لَهَا تَقَحَّمَ، فَمُنِيَ النَّاسُ ـ لَعَمْرُ اللهِ ـ بِخَبْط وَشِمَاس، وَتَلَوُّن وَاعْتِرَاض.

Nevertheless, I remained patient despite length of period and stiffness of trial, till when he went his way (of death) he put the matter (of Caliphate) in a group4 and regarded me to be one of them. But good Heavens! What had I to do with this “consultation”? Where was any doubt about me with regard to the first of them that I was now considered akin to these ones? But I remained low when they were low and flew high when they flew high.

One of them turned against me because of his hatred and the other got inclined the other way due to his in-law relationship and this thing and that thing, till the third man of these people stood up with heaving breasts between his dung and fodder. With him his children of his grand-father, (Umayyah) also stood up swallowing up Allah’s wealth5 like a camel devouring the foliage of spring, till his rope broke down, his actions finished him and his gluttony brought him down prostrate.

فَصَبَرْتُ عَلَى طُولِ الْمُدَّةِ، وَشِدَّةِ الْمحْنَةِ، حَتَّى إِذا مَضَى لِسَبِيلِهِ جَعَلَهَا في جَمَاعَة زَعَمَ أَنَّي أَحَدُهُمْ. فَيَاللهِ وَلِلشُّورَى! مَتَى اعْتَرَضَ الرَّيْبُ فِيَّ مَعَ الاْوَّلِ مِنْهُمْ، حَتَّى صِرْتُ أُقْرَنُ إِلَى هذِهِ النَّظَائِرِ! لكِنِّي أَسفَفْتُ إِذْ أَسَفُّوا، وَطِرْتُ إِذْ طَارُوا، فَصَغَا رَجُلُ مِنْهُمْ لِضِغْنِه، وَمَالَ الاْخَرُ لِصِهْرهِ، مَعَ هَن وَهَن. إِلَى أَنْ قَامَ ثَالِثُ القَوْمِ، نَافِجَاً حِضْنَيْهِ بَيْنَ نَثِيلهِ وَمُعْتَلَفِهِ، وَقَامَ مَعَهُ بَنُو أَبِيهِ يَخْضَمُونَ مَالَ اللهِ خَضْمَ الاْبِل نِبْتَةَ الرَّبِيعِ، إِلَى أَنِ انْتَكَثَ عَلَيْهِ فَتْلُهُ، وَأَجْهَزَ عَلَيْهِ عَمَلُهُ، وَكَبَتْ بِهِ بِطْنَتُهُ.

🍃 Allegiance paid to ‘Ali

مبايعة علي (عليه السلام(

At that moment, nothing took me by surprise, but the crowd of people rushing to me. It advanced towards me from every side like the mane of the hyena so much so that Hasan and Husayn were getting crushed and both the ends of my shoulder garment were torn. They collected around me like a herd of sheep and goats. When I took up the reins of government one party broke away and another turned disobedient while the rest began acting wrongfully as if they had not heard the word of Allah saying:

That abode in the hereafter, We assign it for those who intend not to exult themselves in the earth, nor (to make) mischief (therein); and the end is (best) for the pious ones. (Qur’an, 28:83)

فَمَا رَاعَنِي إلاَّ وَالنَّاسُ إليَّ كَعُرْفِ الضَّبُعِ، يَنْثَالُونَ عَلَيَّ مِنْ كُلِّ جَانِب، حَتَّى لَقَدْ وُطِىءَ الحَسَنَانِ، وَشُقَّ عِطْفَايَ، مُجْتَمِعِينَ حَوْلي كَرَبِيضَةِ الغَنَمِ. فَلَمَّا نَهَضْتُ بِالاْمرِ نَكَثَتْ طَائِفَةٌ، وَمَرَقَتْ أُخْرَى، وَفَسَقَ [وقسط] آخَرُونَ كَأَنَّهُمْ لَمْ يَسْمَعُوا اللهَ سُبْحَانَهُ يَقُولُ: (تِلْكَ الدَّارُ الاخِرَةُ نَجْعَلُهَا للَّذِينَ لاَ يُريدُونَ عُلُوّاً في الاَرْضِ وَلاَ فَسَاداً وَالعَاقِبَةُ لِلْمُتَّقِينَ(،

Yes, by Allah, they had heard it and understood it but the world appeared glittering in their eyes and its embellishments seduced them. Behold, by Him who split the grain (to grow) and created living beings, if people had not come to me and supporters had not exhausted the argument and if there had been no pledge of Allah with the learned to the effect that they should not acquiesce in the gluttony of the oppressor and the hunger of the oppressed I would have cast the rope of Caliphate on its own shoulders, and would have given the last one the same treatment as to the first one. Then you would have seen that in my view this world of yours is no better than the sneezing of a goat.

بَلَى! وَاللهِ لَقَدْ سَمِعُوهَا وَوَعَوْهَا، وَلكِنَّهُمْ حَلِيَتَ الدُّنْيَا في أَعْيُنِهمْ، وَرَاقَهُمْ زِبْرِجُهَا! أَمَا وَالَّذِي فَلَقَ الْحَبَّةَ، وَبَرَأَ النَّسَمَةَ، لَوْلاَ حُضُورُ الْحَاضِرِ، وَقِيَامُ الْحُجَّةِ بِوُجُودِ النَّاصِرِ، وَمَا أَخَذَ اللهُ عَلَى العُلَمَاءِ أَلاَّ يُقَارُّوا عَلَى كِظَّةِ ظَالِم، وَلا سَغَبِ مَظْلُوم، لاَلقَيْتُ حَبْلَهَا عَلَى غَارِبِهَا، وَلَسَقَيْتُ آخِرَهَا بِكَأْسِ أَوَّلِها، وَلاَلفَيْتُمْ دُنْيَاكُمْ هذِهِ أَزْهَدَ عِنْدِي مِنْ عَفْطَةِ عَنْز!

(It is said that when Amir al-mu’minin reached here in his sermon a man of Iraq stood up and handed him over a writing. Amir al-mu’minin began looking at it, when Ibn ‘Abbas said, “O’ Amir al-mu’minin, I wish you resumed your Sermon from where you broke it.” Thereupon he replied, “O’ Ibn ‘Abbas it was like the foam of a Camel which gushed out but subsided.” Ibn ‘Abbas says that he never grieved over any utterance as he did over this one because Amir al-mu’minin could not finish it as he wished to.)

قالوا: وقام إِليه رجل من أهل السوادعند بلوغه إلى هذا الموضع من خطبته، فناوله كتاباً، فأقبل ينظر فيه، فلمّا فرغ من قراءته قال له ابن عباس: يا أميرالمؤمنين، لو اطَّرَدت مَقالتكَ من حيث أَفضيتَ! فَقَالَ(عليه السلام): هَيْهَاتَ يَابْنَ عَبَّاس! تِلْكَ شِقْشِقَةٌ هَدَرَتْ ثُمَّ قَرَّتْ! قال ابن عباس: فوالله ما أَسفت على كلام قطّ كأَسفي على ذلك الكلام أَلاَّ يكون أميرالمؤمنين (عليه السلام) بلغ منه حيث أراد.

Al-Sharif al-Radi says: The words in this sermon “like the rider of a camel” mean to convey that when a camel rider is stiff in drawing up the rein then in this scuffle the nostril gets bruised, but if he lets it loose in spite of the camel’s unruliness, it would throw him somewhere and would get out of control. “ashnaq an-naqah” is used when the rider holds up the rein and raises the camel’s head upwards. In the same sense the word “shanaqa an-naqah” is used. Ibn as-Sikkit has mentioned this in Islah al-Mantiq.

Amir al-mu’minin has said “ashnaqa laha” instead of “ashnaqaha”, this is because he has used this word in harmony with “aslasa laha” and harmony could be retained only by using both in the same form. Thus, Amir al-mu’minin has used “ashnaqa laha” as though in place of “in rafa’a laha ra’saha”, that is, “if he stops it by holding up the reins.”

قال الشريف الرضي: قوله (عليه السلام) في هذه الخطبة: «كراكب الصعبة إن أشنق لها خرم، وإن أسلس لها تقحم» يريد: أنه إذا شدد عليها في جذب الزمام وهي تنازعه رأسها خرم أنفها، وإن أرخى لها شيئاً مع صعوبتها تقحمت به فلم يملكها، يقال: أشنق الناقة، إذا جذب رأسها بالزمام فرفعه، وشنقها أيضاً: ذكر ذلك ابن السكيت في «إصلاح المنطق». وإنما قال (عليه السلام): «أشنق لها» ولم يقل: «أشنقها»، لانه جعله في مقابلة قوله: «أسلس لها»، فكأنه (عليه السلام) قال: إن رفع لها رأسها يعني أمسكه عليها بالزمام .

***************************************

🍃 Alternative Sources for 🍃

🍃 Sermon 3 🍃

(1) Al-Mufid, al-Jamal, 62;

(2) Ibn Qubbah, al-'Insaf, see Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh, I, 69, see also ‘Abd al-Zahra', I, 309-310;

(3) al-Saduq, Ma’ani, 344;

(4) al-Hasan ibn ‘Abd Allah al-’Askari, from him al-Saduq in Ma’ani;

(5) Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, al-’Iqd, IV, see ‘Abd al-Zahra', I, 311-312 and al-Majlisi, Bihar, vol.8, 160;

(6) al-Ka’bi (d.319/931) - see Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh, I, 69;

(7) Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Manaqib, see Bihar, vol.8, 160; and ‘Abd al-Zahra', I, 310-11;

(8) al-Mufid, al-'Irshad, 135;

(9) al-Qadi ‘Abd al-Jabbar, al-Mughni, see al-Ghadir, VII, 83;

(10) al-Saduq, ‘Ilal, bab al-’illat allati min ajliha taraka Amir al-Mu'minin (A) mujahadat ahl al-khilaf;

(11) Abu Sa’id al-'Abi, Nathr al-durar and Nuzhat al-'adib, see ‘Abd al-Zahra', I, 313;

(12) al-Murtada, al-Shafi, 203, 204;

(13) al-Haffar, al-'Insaf from him al-Tusi in al-'Amali;

(14) al-Tusi, al-'Amali, I, 392;

(15) Qutb al-Din Rawandi, Sharh, from Ibn Mardawayh and al-Tabarani;

(16) Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Tadhkirah, 133;

(17) al-Harrani, Tuhaf, 313;

(18) al-Murtada, Sharh al-Khutbat al-Shiqshiqiyyah, seeA’yan al-Shi’ah, vol. 41, p. 195;

(19) al-Tabarsi, al-'Ihtijaj; I, 95; for a detailed discussion of sources, see ‘Abd al-Zahra', I, 309-324.

1. This sermon is known as the sermon of ash-Shiqshiqiyyah, and is counted among the most famous sermons of Amir al-mu'minin. It was delivered at ar-Rahbah. Although some people have denied it to be Amir al-mu'minin's utterance and by attributing it to as-Sayyid ar-Radi (or ash-Sharif ar-Radi) have laid blame on his acknowledged integrity, yet truth-loving scholars have denied its veracity. Nor can there be any ground for this denial because `Ali's (p.b.u.h.) difference of view in the matter of Caliphate is not a secret matter, so that such hints should be regarded as something alien. And the events which have been alluded to in this sermon are preserved in the annals of history which testifies them word by word and sentence by sentence.

If the same events which are related by history are recounted by Amir al-mu'minin then what is the ground for denying them? If the memory of discouraging circumstances faced by him soon after the death of the Prophet appeared unpalatable to him it should not be surprising. No doubt this sermon hits at the prestige of certain personalities and gives a set back to the faith and belief in them but this cannot be sustained by denying the sermon to be Amir al-mu'minin's utterance, unless the true events are analysed and truth unveiled; otherwise just denying it to be Amir al-mu'minin's utterance because it contains disparagement of certain individuals carries no weight, when similar criticism has been related by other historians as well. Thus (Abu `Uthman) `Amr ibn Bahr al-Jahiz has recorded the following words of a sermon of Amir al-mu'minin and they are not less weighty than the criticism in the "Sermon of ash-Shiqshiqiyyah."

Those two passed away and the third one rose like the crow whose courage is confined to the belly. It would have been better if both his wings had been cut and his head severed.

Consequently, the idea that it is the production of as-Sayyid ar-Radi is far from truth and a result of partisanship and partiality. Or else if it is the result of some research it should be brought out. Otherwise, remaining in such wishful illusion does not alter the truth, nor can the force of decisive arguments be curbed down by mere disagreement and displeasure.

Now we set forth the evidence of those scholars and traditionists who have clearly held it to be Amir al-mu'minin's production, so that its historical importance should become known. Among these scholars some are those before as-Sayyid ar-Radi's period, some are his contemporaries and some are those who came after him but they all related it through their own chain of authority.

1) Ibn Abi'l-Hadid al-Mu`tazili writes that his master Abu'l-Khayr Musaddiq ibn Shabib al-Wasiti (d. 605 A.H.) stated that he heard this sermon from ash-Shaykh Abu Muhammad `Abdullah ibn Ahmad al-Baghdadi (d. 567 A.H.) known as Ibn al-Khashshab and when he reached where Ibn `Abbas expressed sorrow for this sermon having remained incomplete Ibn al-Khashshab said to him that if he had heard the expression of sorrow from Ibn `Abbas he would have certainly asked him if there had remained with his cousin any further unsatisfied desire because excepting the Prophet he had already spared neither the predecessors nor followers and had uttered all that he wished to utter. Why should therefore be any sorrow that he could not say what he wished?

Musaddiq says that Ibn al-Khashshab was a man of jolly heart and decent taste. I inquired from him whether he also regarded the sermon to be a fabrication when he replied "By Allah, I believe it to be Amir al-mu'minin's word as I believe you to be Musaddiq ibn Shabib." I said that some people regard it to be as-Sayyid ar-Radi's production when he replied: "How can ar-Radi have such guts or such style of writing. I have seen as-Sayyid ar-Radi's writings and know his style of composition. Nowhere does his writing match with this one and I have already seen it in books written two hundred years before the birth of as-Sayyid ar-Radi, and I have seen it in familiar writings about which I know by which scholars or men of letters they were compiled. At that time not only ar-Radi but even his father Abu Ahmad an-Naqib has not been born."

2) Thereafter Ibn Abi'l-Hadid writes that he saw this sermon in the compilations of his master Abu'l-Qasim (`Abdullah ibn Ahmad) al-Balkhi (d. 317 A.H.). He was the Imam of the Mu'tazilites in the reign of al-Muqtadir Billah while al-Muqtadir's period was far earlier than the birth of as-Sayyid ar-Radi.

3) He further writes that he saw this sermon in Abu Ja`far (Muhammad ibn `Abd ar-Rahman), Ibn Qibah's book al-Insaf. He was the pupil of Abu'l-Qasim al-Balkhi and a theologian of Imamiyyah (Shi`ite) sect. (Sharh of Ibn Abi'l-Hadid, vol.1, pp.205-206)

4) Ibn Maytham al-Bahrani (d. 679 A.H.) writes in his commentary that he had seen one such copy of this sermon which bore writing of al-Muqtadir Billah's minister Abu'l-Hasan `Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Furat (d. 312 A.H.). (Sharh al-balaghah, vol.1., pp.252-253)

5) al-`Allamah Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi has related the following chain of authority about this Sermon from ash-Shaykh Qutbu'd-Din ar-Rawandi's compilation Minhaj al-bara`ah fi Sharh Nahjul Balaghah: Ash-Shaykh Abu Nasr al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim informed me from al-Hajib Abu'l-Wafa' Muhammad ibn Badi`, al-Husayn ibn Ahmad ibn Badi` and al-Husayn ibn Ahmad ibn `Abd ar-Rahman and they from al-Hafiz Abu Bakr (Ahmad ibn Musa) ibn Marduwayh al-Isbahani (d. 416 A.H.) and he from al-Hafiz Abu'l-Qasim Sulayman ibn Ahmad at-Tabarani (d. 360 A.H.) and he from Ahmad ibn `Ali al-Abbar and he from Is'haq ibn Sa`id Abu Salamah ad-Dimashqi and he from Khulayd ibn Da`laj and he from `Ata' ibn Abi Rabah and he from Ibn `Abbas. (Bihar al-anwar, 1st ed. vol.8, pp.160-161)

6) In the context al-`Allamah al-Majlisi has written that this sermon is also contained in the compilations of Abu `Ali (Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab) al-Jubba 'i (d. 303 A.H.) .

7) In connection with this very authenticity al-`Allamah al-Majlisi writes: Al-Qadi `Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad al-Asad'abadi (d. 415A.H.) who was a strict Mu`tazilite explains some expressions of this sermon in his book al-Mughni and tries to prove that it does not strike against any preceding caliph but does not deny it to be Amir al-mu'minin's composition. (ibid., p.161)

(8) Abu Ja`far Muhammad ibn `Ali, Ibn Babawayh (d. 381 A.H.) writes: Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Is'haq at-Talaqani told us that `Abd al-`Aziz ibn Yahya al-Jaludi (d. 332 A.H.) told him that Abu `Abdillah Ahmad ibn `Ammar ibn Khalid told him that Yahya ibn `Abd al-Hamid al- Himmani (d. 228 A.H.) told him that `Isa ibn Rashid related this sermon from `Ali ibn Hudhayfah and he from `Ikrimah and he from Ibn `Abbas. (`Ilal ash-shara'i`,vol.1, chap. 122, p.144; Ma`ani al-akhbar, chap.22, pp.360-361)

9) Then Ibn Babawayh records the following chain of authorities :- Muhammad ibn `Ali Majilawayh related this sermon to us and he took it from his uncle Muhammad ibn Abi'l-Qasim and he from Ahmad ibn Abi `Abdillah (Muhammad ibn Khalid) al-Barqi and he from his father and he from (Muhammad) Ibn Abi `Umayr and he from Aban ibn `Uthman and he from Aban ibn Taghlib and he from `Ikrimah and he from Ibn `Abbas. (`Ilal ash-shara'i`, vol.1, chap.122, p.l46; Ma`ani al-akhbar, chap.22, p.361)

10) Abu Ahmad al-Hasan ibn `Abdillah ibn Sa`id al-`Askari (d.382 A.H.) who counts among great scholars of the Sunnis has written commentary and explanation of this sermon that has been recorded by Ibn Babawayh in `Ilal ash-shara'i` and Ma`ani al-akhbar.

11) as-Sayyid Ni`matullah al-Jaza'iri writes: The author of Kitab al-gharat Abu Is'haq, Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ath-Thaqafi al-Kufi (d. 283 A.H.) has related this sermon through his own chain of authorities. The date of completion of writing this book is Tuesday the 13th Shawwal 255 A.H. and in the same year, Murtada al-Musawi was born. He was older in age than his brother as-Sayyid ar-Radi. (Anwar an-Nu`maniyyah, p.37)

12) as-Sayyid Radi ad-Din Abu'l-Qasim `Ali ibn Musa, Ibn Tawus al-Husayni al-Hulli (d. 664 A.H.) has related this sermon from Kitab al-gharat with the following chain of authorities:- This sermon was related to us by Muhammad ibn Yusuf who related it from al-Hasan ibn `Ali ibn `Abd al-Karim az-Za`farani and he from Muhammad ibn Zakariyyah al-Ghallabi and he from Ya`qub ibn Ja`far ibn Sulayman and he from his father and he from his grand-father and he from Ibn `Abbas. (Translation of at-Tara'if, p.202)

13) Shaykh at-Ta'ifah, Muhammad ibn al- Hasan at-Tusi (d. 460 A.H.) writes: (Abu'l-Fath Hilal ibn Muhammad ibn Ja`far) al-Haffar related this sermon to us. He related it from Abu'l-Qasim (Isma`il ibn `Ali ibn `Ali) ad-Di`bili and he from his father and he from his brother Di`bil (ibn `Ali al-Kuza`i) and he from Muhammad ibn Salamah ash-Shami and he from Zurarah ibn A`yan and he from Abu Ja`far Muhammad ibn `Ali and he from Ibn `Abbas. (al-Amali, p.237)

14) ash-Shaykh al-Mufid (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn an-Nu`man, d. 413 A.H.) who was the teacher of as-Sayyid ar-Radi writes about the chain of authorities of this sermon: A number of relaters of traditions have related this sermon from Ibn `Abbas through numerous chains. (al-Irshad, p.135)

15) `Alam al-Huda (emblem of guidance) as-Sayyid al-Murtada who was the elder brother of as-Sayyid ar-Radi has recorded it on pp. 203,204 of his book ash-Shafi.

16) Abu Mansur at-Tabarsi writes: A number of relaters have given an account of this sermon from Ibn `Abbas through various chains. Ibn `Abbas said that he was in the audience of Amir al-mu'minin at ar-Rahbah (a place in Kufah) when conversation turned to Caliphate and those who had preceded him as Caliphs, when Amir al-mu'minin breathed a sigh and delivered this sermon. (al-Ihtijaj, p. 101)

17) Abu'l-Muzaffar Yusuf ibn `Abdillah and Sibt ibn al-Jawzi al-Hanafi (d. 654 A.H.) writes: Our ash-Shaykh Abu'l-Qasim an-Nafis al-Anbari related this sermon to us through his chain of authorities that ends with Ibn `Abbas, who said that after allegiance had been paid to Amir al-mu'minin as Caliph he was sitting on the pulpit when a man from the audience enquired why he had remained quiet till then whereupon Amir al-mu'minin delivered this sermon extempore. (Tadhkarat khawass al-ummah, p.73)

18) al-Qadi Ahmad ibn Muhammad, ash-Shihab al-Khafaji (d. 1069 A.H.) writes with regard to its authenticity: It is stated in the utterances of Amir al-mu'minin `Ali (Allah may be pleased with him) that "It is strange during life time he (Abu Bakr) wanted to give up the Caliphate but he strengthened its foundation for the other one after his death." (Sharh durrat al-ghawwas, p.17)

19) ash-Shaykh `Ala ad-Dawlah as-Simnani writes: Amir al-mu'minin Sayyid al-`Arifin `Ali (p.b.u.h.) has stated in one of his brilliant Sermons "this is the Shiqshiqah that burst forth." (al-`Urwah li ahl al-khalwah wa'l-jalwah, p3, manuscript in Nasiriah Library, Lucknow, India)

20) Abu'l-Fadl Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Maydani (d. 518 A.H.) has written in connection with the word Shiqshiqah: One sermon of Amir al-mu'minin `Ali is known as Khutbah ash-Shiqshiqiyyah (the sermon of the Camel's Foam). (Majma` al-amthal, vol.1, p.369)

21) In fifteen places in an-Nihayah while explaining the words of this sermon Abu's-Sa`adat Mubarak ibn Muhammad, Ibn al-Athir al-Jazari (d. 606 A.H.) has acknowledged it to be Amir al-mu'minin's utterance.

22) Shaykh Muhammad Tahir Patni while explaining the same words in Majma` bihar al-anwar testifies this sermon to be Amir al-mu'minin's by saying, "`Ali says so."

23) Abu'l-Fadl ibn Manzur (d. 711 A.H.) has acknowledged it as Amir al-mu'minin's utterance in Lisan al-`Arab, vol.12, p.54 by saying, "In the sayings of `Ali in his sermon 'It is the camel's foam that burst forth then subsided.'"

24) Majdu'd-Din al-Firuz'abadi (d. 816/817 A.H.) has recorded under the word "Shiqshiqah" in his lexicon (al-Qamus, vol.3, p.251): Khutbah ash-Shiqshiqiyyah is by `Ali so named because when Ibn `Abbas asked him to resume it where he had left it, he said "O' Ibn `Abbas! it was the foam of a camel that burst forth then subsided."

25) The compiler of Muntaha al-adab writes: Khutbah ash-Shiqshiqiyyah of `Ali is attributed to `Ali (Allah may honour his face).

26) ash-Shaykh Muhammad `Abduh, Mufti of Egypt, recognising it as Amir al-mu'minin's utterance, has written its explanations.

27) Muhammad Muhyi'd-Din `Abd al-Hamid, Professor in the Faculty of Arabic Language, al-Azhar University has written annotations on Nahjul Balaghah adding a foreword in the beginning wherein he recognises all such sermons which contain disparaging remarks to be the utterances of Amir al-mu'minin.

In the face of these evidences and undeniable proofs is there any scope to hold that it is not Amir al-mu'minin's production and that as-Sayyid ar-Radi prepared it himself?

2. Amir al-mu'minin has referred to Abu Bakr's accession to the Caliphate metaphorically as having dressed himself with it. This was a common metaphor. Thus, when `Uthman was called to give up the Caliphate he replied, "I shall not put off this shirt which Allah has put on me." No doubt Amir al-mu'minin has not attributed this dressing of Caliphate to Allah but to Abu Bakr himself because according to unanimous opinion his Caliphate was not from Allah but his own affair. That is why Amir al-mu'minin said that Abu Bakr dressed himself with the Caliphate.

He knew that this dress had been stitched for his own body and his position with relation to the Caliphate was that of the axis in the hand-mill which cannot retain its central position without it nor be of any use. Similarly, he held "I was the central pivot of the Caliphate, were I not there, its entire system would have gone astray from the pivot. It was I who acted as a guard for its organisation and order and guided it through all difficulties. Currents of learning flowed from my bosom and watered it on all sides. My position was high beyond imagination but lust of world seekers for government became a tumbling stone for me and I had to confine myself to seclusion. Blinding darkness prevailed all round and there was intense gloom everywhere. The young grew old and the old departed for the graves but this patience-breaking period would not end. I kept watching with my eyes the plundering of my own inheritance and saw the passing of Caliphate from one hand to the other but remained patient as I could not stop their high-handedness for lack of means."

Need For The Prophet's Caliph And The Mode Of His Appointment

After the Prophet of Islam the presence of such a personality was inevitable who could stop the community from disintegration and guard the religious law against change, alteration and interference by those who wanted to twist it to suit their own desires. If this very need is denied then there is no sense in attaching so much importance to the succession of the Prophet that the assemblage in Saqifah of Banu Sa`idah should have been considered more important than the burial of the Prophet.

If the need is recognised, the question is whether or not the Prophet too realised it. If it is held he could not attend to it and appreciate its need or absence of need it would be the biggest proof for regarding the Prophet's mind to be blank for thinking of means to stop the evils of innovations and apostasy in spite of having given warnings about them. If it is said that he did realise it but had to live it unresolved on account of some advantage then instead of keeping it hidden the advantage should be clearly indicated otherwise silence without purpose would constitute delinquency in the discharge of the obligations of Prophethood. If there was some impediment, it should be disclosed otherwise we should agree that just as the Prophet did not leave any item of religion incomplete he did not leave this matter either and did propose such a course of action for it, that if it was acted upon religion would have remained safe against the interference of others.

The question now is what was that course of action. If it is taken to be the consensus of opinion of the community then it cannot truly take place as in such consensus acquiescence of every individual is necessary; but taking into account the difference in human temperaments it seems impossible that they would agree on any single point. Nor is there any example where on such matters there has been no single voice of dissent. How then can such a fundamental need be made dependent on the occurrence of such an impossible event - need on which converges the future of Islam and the good of the Muslims. Therefore, the mind is not prepared to accept this criterion. Nor is tradition in harmony with it, as al-Qadi `Adud ad-Din al-'Iji has written in Sharh al-mawaqif: ‘You should know that Caliphate cannot depend upon unanimity of election because no logical or traditional argument can be advanced for it’.

In fact when the advocates of unanimous election found that unanimity of all votes is difficult they adopted the agreement of the majority as a substitute for unanimity, ignoring the difference of the minority. In such a case also it often happens that the force of fair and foul or correct and incorrect ways turns the flow of the majority opinion in the direction where there is neither individual distinction nor personal merit as a result of which competent persons remain hidden while incompetent individuals stand forward.

When capabilities remain so curbed and personal ends stand in the way as hurdles, how can there be expectation for the election of correct person. Even if it is assumed that all voters have an independent unbiased view, that none of them has his own objective and that none has any other consideration, it is not necessary that every verdict of the majority should be correct, and that it cannot go astray. Experience shows that after experiment the majority has held its own verdict to be wrong.

If every verdict of the majority is correct then its first verdict should be wrong because the verdict which holds it wrong is also that of the majority. In this circumstances if the election of the Caliph goes wrong who would be responsible for the mistake, and who should face the blame for the ruination of the Islamic polity. Similarly on whom would be the liability for the bloodshed and slaughter following the turmoil and activity of the elections. When it has been seen that even those who sat in the audience of the Holy Prophet could not be free of mutual quarrel and strife how can others avoid it.

If with a view to avoid mischief it is left to the people of authority to choose anyone they like then here too the same friction and conflict would prevail because here again convergence of human temperaments on one point is not necessary nor can they be assumed to rise above personal ends. In fact here the chances of conflict and collision would be stronger because if not all at least most of them would themselves be candidates for that position and would not spare any effort to defeat their opponent, creating impediments in his way as best as possible. Its inevitable consequence would be mutual struggle and mischief-mongering.

Thus, it would not be possible to ward off the mischief for which this device was adopted, and instead of finding a proper individual the community would just become an instrument for the achievement of personal benefits of the others. Again, what would be the criterion for these people in authority? The same as has usually been, namely whoever collects a few supporters and is able to create commotion in any meeting by use of forceful words would count among the people of authority. Or would capabilities also be judged? If the mode of judging the capabilities is again this very common vote then the same complications and conflicts would arise here too, to avoid which this way was adopted.

If there is some other standard, then instead of judging the capabilities of the voters by it why not judge the person who is considered suitable for the position in view. Further, how many persons in authority would be enough to give a verdict? Apparently a verdict once accepted would be precedent for good and the number that would give this verdict would become the criterion for future. al-Qadi `Adud ad-Din al-'Iji writes: ‘Rather the nomination of one or two individuals by the people in authority is enough because we know that the companions who were strict in religion deemed it enough as the nomination of Abu Bakr by `Umar and of `Uthman by `Abd ar-Rahman’. (Sharh al-mawaqif, p.351 )

This is the account of the "unanimous election" in the Hall of Bani Sa`idah and the activity of the consultative assembly: that is, one man's action has been given the name of unanimous election and one individual's deed given the name of consultative assembly. Abu Bakr had well understood this reality that election means the vote of a person or two only which is to be attributed to common simple people.

That is why he ignored the requirements of unanimous election, majority vote or method of choosing through electoral assembly and appointed `Umar by nomination. `A'ishah also considered that leaving the question of caliphate to the vote of a few particular individuals meant inviting mischief and trouble. She sent a word to `Umar on his death saying: Do not leave the Islamic community without a chief. Nominate a Caliph for it and leave it not without an authority as otherwise I apprehend mischief and trouble.

When the election by those in authority proved futile it was given up and only "might is right" became the criteria-namely whoever subdues others and binds them under his sway and control is accepted as the Caliph of the Prophet and his true successor. These are those self-adopted principles in the face of which all the Prophet's sayings uttered in the "Feast of the Relatives," on the night of hijrah, at the battle of Tabuk, on the occasion of conveying the Qur'anic chapter "al-Bara'ah" (at-Tawbah, chap.9) and at Ghadir (the spring of) Khumm.

The strange thing is that when each of the first three caliphates is based on one individual's choice how can this very right to choose be denied to the Prophet himself, particularly when this was the only way to end all the dissension, namely that the Prophet should have himself settled it and saved the community from future disturbances and spared it from leaving this decision in the hands of people who were themselves involved in personal aims and objects. This is the correct procedure which stands to reason and which has also the support of the Prophet's definite sayings.

3. Hayyan ibn as-Samin al-Hanafi of Yamamah was the chief of the tribe Banu Hanifah and the master of fort and army. Jabir is the name of his younger brother while al-A`sha whose real name was Maymun ibn Qays ibn Jandal enjoyed the position of being his bosom friend and led a decent happy life through his bounty. In this verse he has compared his current life with the previous one that is the days when he roamed about in search of livelihood and those when he led a happy life in Hayyan's company.

Generally Amir al-mu'minin's quoting of this verse has been taken to compare this troubled period with the peaceful days passed under the care and protection of the Prophet when he was free from all sorts of troubles and enjoyed mental peace. But taking into account the occasion for making this comparison and the subject matter of the verse it would not be far fetched if it is taken to indicate the difference between the unimportant position of those in power during the Prophet's life time and the authority and power enjoyed by them after him, that is, at one time in the days of the Prophet no heed was paid to them because of `Ali's personality but now the time had so changed that the same people were masters of the affairs of the Muslim world.

4. When `Umar was wounded by Abu Lu'lu'ah and he saw that it was difficult for him to survive because of the deep wound, he formed a consultative committee and nominated for it `Ali ibn Abi Talib, `Uthman ibn `Affan, `Abd ar-Rahman ibn `Awf, az-Zubayr ibn al-`Awwam, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, and Talhah ibn `Ubaydillah and bound them that after three days of his death they should select one of themselves as the Caliph while for those three days Suhayb should act as Caliph. On receipt of these instructions some members of the committee requested him to indicate what ideas he had about each of them to enable them to proceed further in their light. `Umar therefore disclosed his own view about each individual.

He said that Sa`d was harsh-tempered and hot headed; `Abd ar-Rahman was the Pharaoh of the community; az-Zubayr was, if pleased, a true believer but if displeased an unbeliever; Talhah was the embodiment of pride and haughtiness, if he was made caliph he would put the ring of the caliphate on his wife's finger while `Uthman did not see beyond his kinsmen. As regards `Ali he is enamoured of the Caliphate although I know that he alone can run it on right lines. Nevertheless, despite this admission, he thought it necessary to constitute the consultative Committee and in selecting its members and laying down the working procedure he made sure that the Caliphate would take the direction in which he wished to turn it.

Thus, a man of ordinary prudence can draw the conclusion that all the factors for `Uthman's success were present therein. If we look at its members we see that one of them namely `Abd ar-Rahman ibn `Awf is the husband of `Uthman's sister, next Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas besides bearing malice towards `Ali is a relation and kinsman of `Abd ar-Rahman. Neither of them can be taken to go against `Uthman. The third Talhah ibn `Ubaydillah about whom Prof. Muhammad `Abduh writes in his annotation on Nahjul Balaghah:

Talhah was inclined towards `Uthman and the reason for it was no less than that he was against `Ali, because he himself was at at-Taymi and Abu Bakr's accession to the Caliphate had created bad blood between Bani Taym and Banu Hashim.

As regards az-Zubayr, even if he had voted for `Ali, what could his single vote achieve. According to at-Tabari's statement Talhah was not present in Medina at that time but his absence did not stand in the way of `Uthman's success. Rather even if he were present, as he did actually reach at the meeting (of the Committee), and he is taken to be `Ali's supporter, still there could be no doubt in `Uthman's success because `Umar's sagacious mind had set the working procedure that:

If two agree about one and the other two about another then `Abdullah ibn `Umar should act as the arbitrator. The group whom he orders should choose the Caliph from among themselves. If they do not accept `Abdullah ibn `Umar's verdict, support should be given to the group which includes `Abd ar-Rahman ibn `Awf, but if the others do not agree they should be beheaded for opposing this verdict. (at-Tabari, vol.1, pp.2779-2780; Ibn al-Athir, vol.3, p.67).

Here disagreement with the verdict of `Abdullah ibn `Umar has no meaning since he was directed to support the group which included `Abd ar-Rahman ibn `Awf. He had ordered his son `Abdullah and Suhayb that: ‘If the people differ, you should side with the majority, but if three of them are on one side and the other three on the other, you should side with the group including `Abd ar-Rahman ibn `Awf’. (at-Tabari, vol.1, pp.2725,2780; Ibn al-Athir, vol.3, pp.51,67).

In this instruction the agreement with the majority also means support of `Abd ar-Rahman because the majority could not be on any other side since fifty blood-thirsty swords had been put on the heads of the opposition group with orders to fall on their heads on `Abd ar-Rahman's behest. Amir al-mu'minin's eye had fore-read it at that very moment that the Caliphate was going to `Uthman as appears from his following words which he spoke to al-`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib:

"The Caliphate has been turned away from us." al-`Abbas asked how could he know it. Then he replied, "`Uthman has also been coupled with me and it has been laid down that the majority should be supported; but if two agree on one and two on the other, then support should be given to the group which includes `Abd ar-Rahman ibn `Awf. Now Sa`d will support his cousin `Abd ar-Rahman who is of course the husband of `Uthman's sister." (ibid )

However, after `Umar's death this meeting took place in the room of `A'ishah and on its door stood Abu Talhah al-Ansari with fifty men having drawn swords in their hands. Talhah started the proceedings and inviting all others to be witness said that he gave his right of vote to `Uthman. This touched az-Zubayr's sense of honour as his mother Safiyyah daughter of `Abd al-Muttalib was the sister of Prophet's father. So he gave his right of vote to `Ali.

Thereafter Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas made his right of vote to `Abd ar-Rahman. This left three members of the consultative committee out of whom `Abd ar-Rahman said that he was willing to give up his own right of vote if `Ali (p.b.u.h.) and `Uthman gave him the right to choose one of them or one of these two should acquire this right by withdrawing. This was a trap in which `Ali had been entangled from all sides namely that either he should abandon his own right or else allow `Abd ar-Rahman to do as he wished. The first case was not possible for him; that is, to give up his own right and elect `Uthman or `Abd ar-Rahman.

So, he clung to his right, while `Abd ar-Rahman separating himself from it assumed this power and said to Amir al-mu'minin, "I pay you allegiance on your following the Book of Allah, the sunnah of the Prophet and the conduct of the two Shaykhs, (Abu Bakr and `Umar). `Ali replied, "Rather on following the Book of Allah, the sunnah of the Prophet and my own findings." When he got the same reply even after repeating the question thrice he turned to `Uthman saying, "Do you accept these conditions." He had no reason to refuse and so he agreed to the conditions and allegiance was paid to him. When Amir al mu'minin saw his rights being thus trampled he said: "This is not the first day when you behaved against us. I have only to keep good patience. Allah is the Helper against whatever you say. By Allah, you have not made `Uthman Caliph but in the hope that he would give back the Caliphate to you."

After recording the events of ash-Shura (consultative committee), Ibn Abi'l-Hadid has written that when allegiance had been paid to `Uthman, `Ali addressed `Uthman and `Abd ar-Rahman saying, "May Allah sow the seed of dissension among you," and so it happened that each turned a bitter enemy of the other and `Abd ar-Rahman did not ever after speak to `Uthman till death. Even on death bed he turned his face on seeing him.

On seeing these events the question arises whether ash-Shura (consultative committee) means confining the matter to six persons, thereafter to three and finally to one only. Also whether the condition of following the conduct of the two Shaykhs for Caliphate was put by `Umar or it was just a hurdle put by `Abd ar-Rahman between `Ali (p.b.u.h.) and the Caliphate, although the first Caliph did not put forth this condition at the time of nominating the second Caliph, namely that he should follow the former's footsteps. What then was the occasion for this condition here?

However, Amir al-mu'minin had agreed to participate in it in order to avoid mischief and to put an end to arguing so that others should be silenced and should not be able to claim that they would have voted in his favour and that he himself evaded the consultative committee and did not give them an opportunity of selecting him.

5. About the reign of the third Caliph, Amir al-mu'minin says that soon on `Uthman's coming to power Banu Umayyah got ground and began plundering the Bayt al-mal (public fund), and just as cattle on seeing green grass after drought trample it away, they recklessly fell upon Allah's money and devoured it. At last this self-indulgence and nepotism brought him to the stage when people besieged his house, put him to sword and made him vomit all that he had swallowed.

The maladministration that took place in this period was such that no Muslim can remain unmoved to see that Companions of high position were lying uncared for, they were stricken with poverty and surrounded by pennilessness while control over Bayt al-mal (public fund) was that of Banu Umayyah, government positions were occupied by their young and inexperienced persons, special Muslim properties were owned by them, meadows provided grazing but to their cattle, houses were built but by them, and orchards were but for them. If any compassionate person spoke about these excesses his ribs were broken, and if someone agitated this capitalism he was externed from the city. The uses to which zakat and charities which were meant for the poor and the wretched and the public fund which was the common property of the Muslims were put may be observed from the following few illustrations;

1) al-Hakam ibn Abi'l-`As who had been exiled from Medina by the Prophet was allowed back in the city not only against the Prophet's sunnah but also against the conduct of the first two Caliphs and he was paid three hundred thousand Dirhams from the public fund. (Ansab al-ashraf, vol.5, pp.27, 28, 125)

2) al-Walid ibn `Uqbah who has been named hypocrite in the Qur'an was paid one hundred thousand Dirhams from the Muslim's public fund. (al-`Iqd al-farid, vol.3, p.94)

3) The Caliph married his own daughter Umm Aban to Marwan ibn al-Hakam and paid him one hundred thousand Dirhams from the public fund. (Sharh of Ibn Abi'l-Hadid, vol.1, pp.198-199).

4) He married his daughter `A'ishah to Harith ibn al-Hakam and granted him one hundred thousand Dirhams from the public fund. (ibid.)

5) `Abdullah ibn Khalid was paid four hundred thousand Dirhams. (al-Ma`arif of Ibn Qutaybah, p.84)

6) Allowed the khums (one fifth religious duty) from Africa (amounting to five hundred thousand Dinars) to Marwan ibn al-Hakam. (ibid)

7) Fadak which was withheld from the angelic daughter of the Prophet on the ground of being general charity was given as a royal favour to Marwan ibn al-Hakam. (ibid.)

(8) Mahzur a place in the commercial area of Medina which had been declared a public trust by the Prophet was gifted to Harith ibn al-Hakam. (ibid.)

9) In the meadows around Medina no camel except those of Banu Umayyah were allowed to graze. (Sharh of Ibn Abi'l-Hadid, vol.l, p.l99)

10) After his death (`Uthman's) one hundred and fifty thousand Dinars (gold coins) and one million Dirhams (silver coins) were found in his house. There was no limit to tax free lands; and the total value of the landed estate he owned in Wadi al-Qura and Hunayn was one hundred thousand Dinars. There were countless camels and horses. (Muruj adh-dhahab, vol.l, p.435)

11) The Caliph's relations ruled all the principal cities. Thus, at Kufah, al-Walid ibn `Uqbah was the governor but when in the state of intoxication of wine he led the morning prayer in four instead of two rak`ah and people agitated he was removed, but the Caliph put in his place a hypocrite like Sa`id ibn al-`As. In Egypt `Abdullah ibn Sa`d ibn Abi Sarh, in Syria Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, and in Basrah, `Abdullah ibn `Amir were the governors appointed by him (ibid.)

.

[theressomethinghappeninginparis]

There's a lot to unpack here so I'm going to skip any unnecessary part. A day has passed, I have been through more books than I own and I had to limit the amount of information to note since my head is overflowing. Here's a few pages on alchemy practised in different parts of the world:

Transcript of the first page: Alchemist tried to split anything into very very mall pieces. There was even the attempt of a periodic system that puts chemical elements in order. Though they used so called "Decknamen", secret codes for substances only alchemists understood. There are a few noble metals: gold (associated with the sun) and silver (with the moon). The base metals are quicksilver and mercury (associated with mercury), copper (with venus), iron (with mars) and tin (associated with jupiter).

Transcript of the second and third and fourth page: Indian alchemists didn't care much about gold but rather health. Even the oldest sacred Hindu texts contain alchemy and their elixirs were aimed to relief specific pains and diseases. Through this Ayurverda came into existence which is used today in India and Nepal and has no scientific evidence to support its use. It is said that gods have given mortals the recipies, including special diets, forms of meditation and essential oil mixtures. Even organ transplantation and rhinoplasty are mentioned. Lord Vishnu came to Earth and taught medicine as Dhanvanthari. His first appearance is in the Ksheer Sagar, the cosmic ocean of milk: "He was strongly built(...), his eyes were reddish and his complexion was black. (...) his entire body was decorated with various ornaments." The second time on Earth he gave humans Ayurveda and is referred to as "father of surgery". He is celebrated today in the Festival of Lights and people ask for happiness and health for all people.

Transcript of the fifth page: Chinese alchemists were interested in medicine and physical immortaloty, and invented an "elixir of life", also called "drinkable gold" and accidentally invented gun powder. A lot of influence came from Taoism, the only religion and philosophy of China, which relies on the concept of dualism. Opposite forces belong together, even if they initially clash, like winter and summer, good and evil and water and fire.

Transcript of the sixth nd seventh page: Another part from the "School of Naturalists", the belief in Taoism, is the concept of the "Five Phases". The generative cycle is the arrows clockwise on the outside, the destructive cycle is the inside arrows. The phases last 73 days:

wood/spring: period of growth; generates abundant wood and virtality

fire/summer: period of swelling; brimming with fire and energy

earth, the in-between period: leveling and dampening and fruition

metal/autumn: a period of harvesting; collecting patience and work

water/winter: a period of retreat; where stillness and storage pervades.

The flow of energy in human bodies was used as a base for healing and recovering.

Transcript of the eighth and ninth page: Arab alchemy is probably the most known one. The most popular alchemist was Muhammad ibn Zakariys Al-Razi. He said "the study of philosophy could not be considered complete, and a learned man could not be called a philosopher, until he has succeeded in producing the alchemical transmutation". He was a physician living in Bagdad and he classified metals as "bodies" and "spirits". There are several al-kimiya (meaning "wisdom") in the Arab world:

kimiya al-sa´ada (way of obtaining happiness)

kimiya al-ghama (way of obtaining richness)

kimiya alqulub (way of touching hearts)

Jabir ibn Hayyan who mostly wrote books on alchemy and magic analized each Aristotelian element and categorized them: hotness, coldness, dryness and moistness. By rearrangng these base metals a new one would be created, whicht hen gave birth to the idea of a "philosopher's stone", a substance that turns base metals into gold.

Transcript of the tenth and eleventh page: Also, Hayyan tried to achieve the so-called "Takwin", synthetic life. It is unknown if this weas meant literally. In his "Book of Stones" he states "The purpose is to baffle and lead into error except those whom God loves and provides for." Next is an example of a page that contains glass test tubes like we know today.

I find the idea of creating a synthetic human terrifying and interesting as well as unnecessary, yet it caught my attention so bad I am currently analyzing a paper by Kurmo Konsa, a professor of history and archeology. He might answer my mail, too. Could one reawaken the nephilim if desired? Whatever. I have this to wait for...and Carvier's diary pages are still next to me.

#tomb raider angel of darkness #traod #classic tr #tomb raider #angel of darkness #journal #aod #lara craft #tomb raider series

[didanawisgi]

"The first essential in chemistry is that you should perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery. But you, O my son, do experiment's so that you may acquire knowledge. Scientists delight not in abundance of material; they rejoice only in the excellence of their experimental methods."

Jabir ibn Hayyan

[3linaturabi]

THE GREATEST OF ALL PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS OF ALL ERAS (IMAM JAFFAR E SADIQ as).

IMAM JA’FAR AS-SADIQ (a.s.) AND JABIR IBN HAYYAN..

(OLD AGE)

Jabir asked, “Why do we get old?”

Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.) replied, “Diseases are of two kinds-Acute and Chronic. Acute diseases come all of a sudden. They are either cured soon or they kill the patients. Chronic diseases are also of two kinds. Some of them have a prolonged life and some are incurable. Old age is a chronic disease, which is incurable.”

Jabir said, “It is the first time that I hear from you that old age is kind of chronic disease.”

Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.) said, “All of us suffer from this disease. Some at an early age and some at an advanced age. Those, who obey the commands of Allah and abstain from the things proscribed under Islamic Code, take a long time to age, but others get old soon.”

Jabir asked, “Why do we become dull-minded and childish in our old age?”

Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.) replied, “It is not a general rule. Everyone does not become dull minded in his old age. Some people are dull minded and stupid when they are young, but because of their blooming age no one takes much notice of their stupidity. But as they grow older it becomes apparent and noticeable. On the other hand those people who are intelligent and wise when they are young, remain so in their old age. However, they do not retain physical strength of their youth. The store of knowledge of the learned people may not be very big, when they are old. Moreover, in old age, their wits becomes sharper, their views balanced and their judgement impartial. They always side and support the just cause.”

Jabir said, “It is said that we become forgetful in our old age. Is it a general rule?”

Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.) replied, “No, it is not the old age, which makes one forgetful. It is the decrease in the power of memory. The power of memory is just like any other power of the human body. Every power, which is not used, becomes weak. A young man, who does not use his memory, becomes forgetful.

Old people, who confine themselves within the four walls of their houses, do not pay any attention to their environment, do not take any notice of the events and happenings of the world and add nothing to their reservoir of memory, become forgetful. They also start losing gradually what they had stored in their memory till they forget everything. But a person, who does not let the weakness of old age deteriorate his power of memory, finds it stronger than what it was when he was young. Since he has been using his memory throughout his whole life, he finds it at its zenith in his old age.”

[wisdomrays]

The Messenger of God: Muhammad: Part 69

The Ethos Created by the Messenger: Part 2

Islam is the middle way. Its elaborate hierarchy of knowledge is integrated by the principle of Divine Unity (tawhid). There are juridical, social and theological sciences, as well as metaphysical ones, all deriving their principles from the Qur'an. Over time, Muslims developed elaborate philosophical, natural, and mathematical sciences, each of which has its source in a Beautiful Name of God. For example, medicine depends on the Name All-Healing; geometry and engineering on the Names All-Just and All-Determiner, and All-Shaper and All-Harmonizing; philosophy reflects the Name All-Wise.

Each level of knowledge views nature in a particular light. Jurists and theologians see it as the background for human action; philosophers and scientists see it as a domain to be analyzed and understood; and metaphysicians consider it the object of contemplation and the mirror reflecting suprasensible realities. The Author of Nature has inscribed His Wisdom upon every leaf and stone, on every atom and particle, and has created the world of nature in such a way that every phenomenon is a sign (aya) singing the glory of His Oneness.

Islam has maintained an intimate connection between science and Islamic studies. As a result, the traditional education of Islamic scientists, particularly in the early cneturies of Islam, was broad enough to comprise most of the sciences of that time. In later life, each scientist's aptitude and interest would cause him or her to become an expert and specialist in one or more sciences.

Universities, libraries, observatories, and other scientific institutions played a major role in the continuing vitality of Islamic science. These, together with students who would travel hundreds of miles to study under acknowledged scholars, ensured that the whole corpus of knowledge was kept intact and transmitted from one place to another and from one generation to the next. This knowledge did not remain static; rather, it continued to expand and enrich itself. Today, there are hundreds of thousands of Islamic (mainly in Arabic) manuscripts in the world's libraries, a large number of which deal with scientific subjects.

For example, Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Kindi (the "Philosopher of the Arabs") wrote on philosophy, mineralogy, metallurgy, geology, physics, and medicine, among other subjects, and was an accomplished physician. Ibn al-Haytham was a leading Muslim mathematician and, without doubt, the greatest physicist. We know the names of over 100 of his works. Some 19 of them, dealing with mathematics, astronomy, and physics, have been studied by modern scholars. His work exercised a profound influence on later scholars, both in the Muslim world and in the West, where he was known Alhazen. One of his works on optics was translated into Latin in 1572.

Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni was one of the greatest scholars of medieval Islam, and certainly the most original and profound. He was equally well-versed in mathematics, astronomy, the physical and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a geographer and historian, a chronologist and linguist, and as an impartial observer of customs and creeds. Such figures as al-Kharizmi (mathematics), Ibn Shatir (astronomy), al-Khazini (physics), Jabir ibn Hayyan (medicine) are remembered even today. Andalucia (Muslim Spain) was the main center from which the West acquired knowledge and enlightenment for centuries.

Islam founded a most brilliant civilization. This should not be considered surprising, for the Qur'an begins with the injunction: Read: In the Name of Your Master Who creates (96:1). The Qur'an told people to read when there was very little to read and most people were illiterate. What we understand from this apparent paradox is that humanity is to "read" the universe itself as the "Book of Creation." Its counterpart is the Qur'an, a book of letters and words. We are to observe the universe, perceive its meaning and content, and through those activities gain a deeper perception of the beauty and splendor of the Creator's system and the infinitude of His Might. Thus we are obliged to penetrate into the universe's manifold meanings, discover the Divine laws of nature, and establish a world in which science and faith complement each other. All of this will enable us to attain true bliss in both worlds.

In obedience to the Qur'an's injunctions and the Prophet's example, Muslims studied the Book of Divine Revelation (the Qur'an) and the Book of Creation (the universe) and eventually erected a magnificent civilization. Scholars from all over Europe benefited from the centers of higher learning located in Damascus, Bukhara, Baghdad, Cairo, Faz, Qairwan, Zeituna, Cordoba, Sicily, Isfahan, Delhi and other great Islamic cities. Historians liken the Muslim world of the medieval ages, dark for Europe but golden and luminous for Muslims, to a beehive. Roads were full of students, scientists, and scholars traveling from one center of learning to another.

For the first 5 centuries of its existence, the realm of Islam was a most civilized and progressive area. Studded with splendid cities, gracious mosques, and quiet universities, the Muslim East offered a striking contrast to the Christian West, which was sunk in the Dark Ages. Even after the disastrous Mongol invasions and Crusades of the thirteenth century ce and onwards, it displayed vigor and remained for ahead of the West.

Although Islam ruled two-thirds of the known civilized world for at least 11 centuries, laziness and negligence of what was going on beyond its borders caused it to decay. However, it must be pointed out clearly that only Islamic civilization decayed—not Islam. Military victories and superiority, which continued into the eighteenth century, encouraged Muslims to rest on their laurels and neglect further scientific research. They abandoned themselves to living their own lives, and recited the Qur'an without studying its deeper meanings. Meanwhile, Europe made great advances in sciences, which they had borrowed from the Muslims.

What we call "sciences" are, in reality, languages of the Divine Book of Creation (another aspect of Islam). Those who ignore this book are doomed to failure in this world. When the Muslims began to ignore it, it was only a matter of time before they would be dominated by some external force. In this case, that external force was Europe. European cruelty, oppression, and imperialism also contributed greatly to this result.

The present modern civilization cannot last for long, for it is materialistic and cannot satisfy humanity's perennial needs. Such Western sociologists as Oswald Spengler have predicted its collapse on the grounds that it is against human nature and values. On the other hand, Islam has been around for 14 centuries. In addition, it is fully capable of establishing the bright world of the future on the firm foundation of its creed, ethics, spirituality, and morality, as well as its legal, social and economic structures.

#god #islam #muslim #muslimah #help #hijab #allah #ayat #quran #revert #convert #religion #reminder #hadith #sunnah #prophet #Muhammad #pray #prayer #salah #dua #convert help #revert help #islam help #muslim help #welcome to islam #how to convert to islam #new convert #new muslim #new revert

[johnymnemonic1966]

The symbolic meaning of the number 17 is associated with transformation or resurrection.

In the ancient world, the symbolic meaning of the number 17 was highly spiritual and represented love and peace or sin and evil.> In Hebrew, the seventeen is the number of sin. Pythagoreans also said the seventeen is when "The Devil triumphs over God." The Devil is the six and God is the eight.> Sin means to be without a positive quality in an aspect of your consciousness or personality.> The Sufi alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, wrote everything in the world is the 17, the law of equilibrium. This also relates to the 17th card of the Tarot Deck - The Star - which represents resurrection, rebirth after death. It is not by coincidence that Osiris raises from the dead on the 17th day of the month of Athyr in Egyptian mythology.>

[beardedtreeskeletonbagel]

Scholar's at Time of 6th Imam

Jabir ibne Hayyan

Abu Hamza Thumali

Haroon e Makki

Unwane Basree

Zarara bin Ayan

Momin

Mufazzal

Mohammad bin muslim

Abu basir

Hisham bin Hakam

[factstopics]

SURGEON OF OTTOMON EMPIRE

Once the Ottoman Empire was on its way to becoming an empire, it had begun to raise valuable and precious people. Sabuncuoglu Serefeddin was born in Amasya in 1386, an Anatolian city known as the city of princes and extremely important for the Ottoman Empire. This man has been so successful throughout his life that he has become a pioneer in medicine. During the reign of Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror, who conquered Istanbul, he became the most famous physician and surgeon of his time. In this article I will share with you some information about Sabuncuoglu Serefeddin, who is one of the most important people of his time and should never be forgotten. Before I start to tell Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin, the most valuable doctor of his time, Şerefeddin was born in Amasya in 1386.

 His father's name is Ali Çelebi and his grandfather is Sabuncuoğlu Hacı İlyas Çelebi. Like Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin himself, his father and grandfather were famous and successful physicians during his lifetime. His grandfather Sabuncuoğlu Hacı İlyas Çelebi had been physician in the years of 1421-1451 in his father Ali Çelebi between the years of 1408-1421. Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin had received his basic education from Burhanettin Ahmet. He was only 17 years old when he was very young. Sabuncuoglu Serefeddin, who gave his life to read, research and essay, proudly states that he has been practicing medicine for 14 years. Sabuncuoglu Serefeddin followed a different path than other physicians in his lifetime and he was particularly interested in surgery. In the 1400s, physicians were generally not interested in surgery. They even preferred medication, even when surgical treatment was necessary. There was not enough technical opportunity at that time and the treatment methods were technologically very primitive. 

The surgical intervention was difficult and the danger to the patient was very high. That is why physicians were careful not to perform surgical intervention in general. Sabuncuoglu Şerefeddin did not abstain from surgical treatment and achieved extraordinary success. He became a famous surgical physician and became the first Turkish surgical owner. Sabuncuoglu Serefeddin has gone beyond his years with surgery. Because he was doing firsts. One of the three most important surgeons by Arab medical historians. Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin has been working for 14 years at the Amasya Bimarhane, where he was regarded as the hospital of that period. As a result of his studies over time the name was heard in all Anatolia. Today, there is even a hospital in Amasya. Sabuncuoglu Serefeddin has three major works which he wrote as a result of his researches, studies and treatments. These are akhabadin, kitabü Ml -Cerrahiyyeti’l er Haniyye and Mücerreb-nam. Mücerreb-name is one of the most important works of Sabuncuoğlu. 

Read more visit my blog

#ottoman #surgery #surgeon #ottomon history #ancient doctor

[cryptotheism]

One Bad Gloop if it was translated like the Emerald Tablet:

Original text, now lost to history:

1) “One bad gloop, and she do what I yoinky 2) Two big splurgs and a big ass gloopy 3) Three more yoinks, then I buy me a smoothie 4) Poured up a gloop, that's a gloop and a splurgy”

From the Jabirian Corpus, of legendary islamic alchemist Jabir Ibn-Hayyan, 8th-9th century:

1) A single bad gloop! What I yoinky, done! 2) They number among this: Two teaming splurgs, and a donkey-drawn cart of gloopy 3) The yoinks number three, at which point, one must acquire for themselves a smoothie 4) Poured up a gloop, that is a gloop and a splurgy”

Notes: Earliest extant translation is notably corrupt.

Secondary Arabic translation by an unknown author. 9th century:

1) One gloop of malicious character, and what I yoinky is done of her 2) Attested are two great splurgs and a gloopy of great magnitude 3) Of yoinks, three! A smoothie follows shortly after. 4) Upon the pouring of a gloop comes another gloop, and a splurgy.

Notes: This version is as corrupt as the Jabirian corpus edition.

From the Book of the Composition of Alchemy, 12th century Latin:

1) One bad gloop, a yoinky be done 2) Two great splurgs, a gloopy of a strong mule 3) Three yoinks, a smoothie 4) A poured gloop, a gloop, a splurgy

Notes: This was the earliest translation into Latin. However, it was not widely circulated.

From Roger Bacon’s Secretum Secretorum, 1445:

1) One badde gloope, and what I yoinkie hath been done of her 2) Two greate splurgges, and the gloopie of a strong asse is produced 3) Add upon this three yoinks, and the purchase of a smoothie 4) From this is distilled a gloope, another gloope, and a splurgie

Notes: This translation was the most widely read in Europe for the time. This form was the basis for several centuries of translations.

From Giorgio Beato’s Aurelium Occultae, 1613:

1) Only a single gloop is required for them to yoinky 2) Whatever splurgs are needed, they are half that a mule's gloopy 3) Where yoinks number three, this will result in a smoothie 4) Also, a gloop, when added to the mixture, will be doubled, along with a splurgy

From Roscrucian mage William Kriegsmann, allegedly from Phonecian 1633:

1) I speak of a gloop, and all I yoinky shall be done 2) I speak of two great splurgs, and their gloopy most tenacious 3) I speak of three more yoinks, and smoothies 4) I speak of a gloop upon the chalice, for it is but a gloop and no more.

Notes: There was no phonecian. Kriegsmann was likely working from the Secretum Secretorum Latin.

From Sir Issac Newton, 1680:

1) Tis a single impure gloop, and from this a yoinky is born 2) Fore is added a grande gloopy, comes a pair of splurgges 3) Purchase of wane smoothie tis built, upon the three pillars of yoink 4) Ye gloop poured, tis but a gloop and a splurgy

Notes: Newton was an accomplished polyglot, his translation is based in one of the Arabic originals, though which is unclear.

From Rosicrucian mage Sigmund Bacstrom, allegedly from Chaldean, 1802

1) Tis from CHIRAM ONE of the GLOOPY 2) Of two SPLURGS and a great GLOOPY 3) Of three YOINKS and a SMOOTHIE 4) Upon the chalice, a GLOOP and a SPLURGY

Notes: Though many translations claim to be from a Chaldean original, this is unlikely to be true. The Bacstrom translation is notably corrupt.

From Madame Helena Blavatsky, unknown date, mid 19th century.

2) Two splurgs and a gloopy conjoin to form The One 3) All things are produced by conjunction of Splurgs and Gloopy 4) Poured up a gloop, a gloop and a splurgy are Complete.

Notes: It is not known why Blavatsky omitted the first line.

From Fulcanelli, translated from the Sieveking french, 18th century.

1) One malicious gloop, and what is yoinky shall be done by her. 2) By divine conjunction, two big splurgs produce gloopy most grand 3) Upon three additional yoinks, the ONE sires the smoothie 4) Here, a gloop and and a splurgy are poured upon the chalice

From Fulcanelli, revised translation, early 19th century

1) One bad gloop, and what is yoinky be done 2) Two big splurgs, to this, a big ass gloopy 3) Upon three yoinks a smoothie is sired 4) Upon pouring of the gloop, a splurgy and a gloop are produced

I had fun writing this. If you want my actual alchemy research you can find it here.

#Alchemy #One bad gloop

[market-180]

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#work from home jobs #assistant chat job

[ieisia]

Jabir ibn Hayyan Geber

[thewul]

Arabo Islamic contributions to sciences

Today, in almost every aspect of our daily lives, we are indebted in many ways to the Arab contributions to the sciences. The vast contributions, scholarly achievements and innovations of the Arab/Muslim era to world civilization encompassed much of the previous knowledge of the ancient civilizations of the Middle East such as Mesopotamia, Syria, the Greeks, and that of India, China and Persia. Arab and Muslim scholars would come to nourish that which existed, comment on it and then add and create fields within science that eventually would be transferred to Europe and to the rest of the world.

The common factor in all of this scientific research activity was the Arabic language, which became the universal language of science. Then during the 12th and 13th centuries these Arabic studies began to be translated into Latin. Western scholars such as Adelard of Bath, Daniel of Morley, Gerard of Cremona, Johannes Campanus, Michael Scott, Philip of Tripoli, Robert of Chester, Stephenson of Saragossa and William of Lunis were responsible for translating many of the Arab works. These were, in later centuries, to form the foundation of our modern civilization.

There was hardly a single aspect of scientific knowledge in the Middle Ages that did not have an Arab connection. And the fields were vast. The study of the heavens by Arab and Muslim medieval astronomers led to great advancements in this field. Basing their assumption on an ancient Middle Eastern hypothesis that the earth was round, astronomers calculated the circumference of the earth to be 32,844 km (20,400 mi) and its diameter 10,465 km (6,500 mi) – almost coinciding with our modern measurement.

Arab scientists, working in search of a formula, which would convert baser metal into gold, evolved alchemy into what later became known as chemistry. Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan, known as Geber in the West, was the most famous scientist in early chemical research and was labelled as the ‘Father of Chemistry’. Ibn Hayyan was one of chemistry’s greatest geniuses famous for writing more than 100 monumental treatises, of which 22 deal with chemistry and alchemy.

Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan introduced experimental investigation into alchemy (from the Arabic al-kimiya’), creating the momentum for modern chemistry. Ibn Hayyan did much work with metals and salts and is credited with the invention of the alembic and the discovery of antimony, aqua regia, corrosive sublimate, sodium hydroxide; and hydrochloric, citric, tartaric, nitric and sulphuric acids.

Between the 8th and 16th centuries Arab/Islamic mechanics and engineering technology flourished in the Muslim world. In their works, the 9th century Banu Musa (three sons of Musa ibn Shakir) described a hundred technical constructions, revealed originality and far transcended all which had been previously written on the subject.

The 13th century Badi’ al-Zaman ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari in one of his books Al Jami’ Bain al-‘Ilm wal ‘Amal al-Nafi fi Sina at al-Hiyal (A Compendium on the Theory and Practice of Mechanical Arts), an unsurpassed work on Arab mechanical engineering and the climax of ideas on medieval machines and their construction, gives a true insight into Arab mechanical technology.

Even more than mechanics and engineering, breakthroughs in mathematics were one of the main Arab contributions to Western civilization. The Arabs developed the concept of irrational numbers, founded analytical geometry and established algebra and trigonometry as exact sciences. Their development of computational mathematics surpassed all the achievements of the past. Without the simplicity and flexibility of the Arabic numerals and the decimal system, along with the concept of the zero, Western science would have been almost impossible.

It was under the patronage of Arab caliphs that hospitals as we know them today were first established in the 8th century. From that era, they continued to improve upon the healing arts of the ancient world. They added true hospitals with codified administration and wards, establishing these in ideal locations throughout the Islamic world. Added to these institutions were medical schools, medical libraries, apothecary shops, and pharmacies.

One of the two giants in Arab medicine is Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Zakariya al-Razi (865-925), a medical encyclopedist, who was a great authority on infections. Known in medieval Europe as Rhazes, he was a prolific author who wrote more than 100 books on medicine, astronomy, logic, philosophy and the physical sciences. Considered as one of the outstanding authorities in medical history, al-Razi has been described as the ‘unchallenged chief physician of the Muslims’, ‘the greatest clinician of the Middle Ages’, and as ‘the Arab Galen’.

Among his many other volumes of medical surveys, perhaps the most famous are the Al-Tibb al-Mansuri and Kitab al-Hawi fil Tibb – a huge medical encyclopedia, translated into Latin and published in Sicily in 1279 under the title Continens. It summed up all the medical knowledge gleaned from all sources up to the 10th century and was used as a medical source text in Europe until the sixteenth century.

The famous scientist-philosopher, Abu ‘Ali al-Husayn bin ‘Allah ibn Sina (980-1037), known in Europe as Avicenna, had an encyclopedic mind and a photographic memory and was the greatest writer of medicine in the Middle Ages. His encyclopedic work, which had a great influence in both East and West, was Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine) – a work of one million words which summarizes Arabic, Greek, Hindu and Persian medicine until his time.

#AGR #MUAS

[majequimicaculturacientifica]

#ciencia #science #culturacientifica #culturacientífica #cultura científica #cultura cientifica #ciència #chemistry #chem #quimica #alquimia #alchemist #jabir ibn hayyan #historia #histoire #history #edad media

[forgottengenius]

بابائے کیمیا : جابر بن حیان کی اہم ایجادات

جابر ابن حیان ایسا مسلمان کیمیا دان رہا ہے جس کی محنت اور کوشش سے علم کیمیا کو بڑی ترقی ملی اور یہ علم موجودہ حالت پر آیا۔ سچ تو یہ ہے کہ جابر ابن حیان سب سے پہلا کیمیا دان تھا۔ جنھیں دنیا ''بابائے کیمیا‘‘ کے نام سے بھی جانتی ہے۔ وہ ایک عظیم مسلمان کیمیا دان ہونے کے ساتھ ساتھ ریاضی دان، حکیم، فلسفی ، ماہر نفسیات اور ماہر فلکیات بھی تھے۔ اہل مغرب میں جابر بن حیان ''Geber‘‘ کے نام سے جانے جاتے ہیں۔ ان کا تعلق عرب کے ایک قبیلے ''بنو ازد‘‘ سے تھا لیکن ان کا خاندان کوفے آ کر آباد ہو گیا تھا۔ جابر 722ء میں خراسان میں پیدا ہوئے۔ بچپن میں ہی باپ کا سایہ سر سے اٹھ گیا۔ والدہ انہیں لے کر واپس عرب چلی گئیں اور اپنے قبیلے کے لوگوں میں رہنے لگیں۔ انھوں نے کوفہ میں امام جعفر صادقؓ کے مدرسے میں تعلیم حاصل کی جہاں مذہبی ت��لیم کے ساتھ ساتھ فلسفہ حکمت، منطق اور کیمیا جیسے مضامین کی تعلیم بھی دی جاتی تھی۔ یہ ان ہی کی صحبت کا اثر تھا کہ جابر اگرچہ بعد میں سائنسدان بنے لیکن ان پر مذہب کا رنگ ہمیشہ غالب رہا۔

اب تو علم کیمیا بہت ترقی کر چکا ہے اور اس کی بہت سی شاخیں ہیں لیکن جابر کے زمانے میں اس علم کا مطلب یہ تھا کہ معمولی دھاتوں کو سونے میں تبدیل کر دیا جائے۔ کسی کو اس میں کامیابی تو حاصل نہیں ہوئی لیکن کوشش سب کرتے تھے۔ جابر نے اپنا وقت صرف اس خیال پر ضائع نہیں کیا، انہوں نے تجرباتی کیمیا پر زور دیا۔ وہ بہت سے تجربات سے واقف تھے جو آج کے طالب علم بھی اپنی تعلیم گاہوں کی تجربہ گاہ میں کرتے ہیں۔ مثلاً حل کرنا، کشید کرنا، فلٹر کرنا، اشیا کا جوہر اڑانا اور مختلف چیزوں کی قلمیں بنانا۔ اپنی ایک کتاب میں وہ لکھتے ہیں ''کیمیا میں سب سے ضروری چیز تجربہ ہے، جو شخص اپنے علم کی بنیاد تجربے پر نہیں رکھتا، وہ ہمیشہ غلطی کھاتا ہے۔ پس اگر تم کیمیا کا صحیح علم حاصل کرنا چاہتے ہو تو تجربے پر انحصار کرو اور صرف اسی علم کو صحیح جانو جو تجربے سے ثابت ہو جائے۔ 

کسی کیمیا دان کی قابلیت کا اندازہ اس سے نہیں لگایا جاتا کہ اس نے کیا کیا پڑھا ہے، بلکہ اس بات سے لگایا جاتا ہے کہ اس نے تجربے کے ذریعے کیا کچھ ثابت کیا ہے‘‘۔ انہوں نے اپنی کتابوں میں فولاد بنانے، چمڑا رنگنے، دھاتوں کو صاف کرنے موم جامہ بنانے، لوہے کو زنگ سے بچانے کے لئے اس پر وارنش کرنے، بالوں کا خضاب تیار کرنے اور اسی قسم کی درجنوں مفید چیزیں بنانے کے طریقے ایجاد کئے۔ کیمیائی آلات میں جابر کی سب سے اچھی ایجاد ''قرع انبیق‘‘ (distilling apparatus) ہے جس سے کشید کرنے، عرق کھینچنے اور ست یا جوہر تیار کرنے کا کام لیا جاتا تھا۔ اس آلے میں جو برتن استعمال ہوتے تھے ان میں سے ایک ''قرع‘‘ اور دوسرے کو ''انبیق‘‘ کہتے تھے۔ قرع عموماً صراحی کی شکل کا ہوتا تھا، جس کے ساتھ ایک لمبی نالی لگی ہوتی تھی۔ دوسرا حصہ پہلے پر اچھی طرح آ جاتا تھا اور اس میں پھنس جاتا تھا۔ 

عطار عرق کھینچنے کے لئے اب بھی یہ آلہ استعمال کرتے ہیں۔ فرق صرف یہ ہے کہ اب وہ مٹی کے بجائے لوہے یا ٹین سے بنایا جاتا ہے۔ اس کا موجودہ نام'' ریٹارٹ‘‘( Retort ) ہے۔ جابر کی ایک اہم دریافت گندھک کا تیزاب ہے۔ انہوں نے اس قرع انبیق سے ہی تیزاب بنایا۔ آج بھی اس کی تیاری کا طریقہ کافی حد تک وہی ہے۔ فرق صرف یہ ہے کہ اب ذرا بہتر قسم کے آلات استعمال کئے جاتے ہیں۔ الغرض جابر نے اپنی تحقیقات سے علم کیمیا کو نیا روپ دیا اور اسے کہیں سے کہیں پہنچا دیا۔ انھوں نے کیمیا پر تصانیف بھی لکھیں جن کی زبان عربی ہے۔ ان کی تمام تصانیف کا ترجمہ لاطینی کے علاوہ دیگر یورپی زبانوں میں بھی ہو چکا ہے۔ ان کی علمی تحریروں میں 200 سے زیادہ تصانیف شامل ہیں۔ اسلامی عہد میں سنہری کارنامے انجام دینے والا یہ عظیم سائنس دان 95 برس کی عمر میں فوت ہوا۔

بشکریہ دنیا نیوز

#Chemist #Chemistry #Jabir ibn Hayyan #Muslim Scientists #Science #Technology #World