#malaria life cycle animation

[best2try]

#medical medium brain saver: answers to brain inflammation #brain health #medical medium #mental health #healthy aging #health #brain fog #brain food #brain diet #brain foods #staying healthy #food for brain #uc davis health #malaria life cycle animation #autoimmune & eating disorders #alzheimer’s prevention #presentation #fever #expanding human potential #at universal studios hollywood #iowa state university #education #mediterranean diet #infectious diseases #Youtube

[idigitizellp21]

Mastering Mosquito Control: Tips And Tricks

Mastering mosquito control is a paramount endeavour, especially in regions where these relentless pests pose a significant threat to public health and well-being. As the guardians of our outdoor spaces, it becomes imperative to navigate the intricate realm of mosquito management with finesse and efficacy. In this comprehensive guide, we delve into the nuanced world of mosquito control, offering a treasure trove of tips and tricks to empower individuals and communities in the relentless battle against these buzzing adversaries. From understanding the intricacies of mosquito behaviour to implementing eco-friendly deterrents, this guide serves as a beacon for those seeking mastery over mosquito infestations.

Embarking on a journey through the biological intricacies of mosquitoes, we unravel the secrets behind their breeding habits and habitat preferences. Armed with this knowledge, readers will learn practical strategies to disrupt the mosquito life cycle and create an environment that is inhospitable to their proliferation. Furthermore, we explore innovative technologies and time-tested methods, ensuring a comprehensive approach that caters to various landscapes and lifestyles.

As we navigate the landscape of mosquito control, this guide becomes an indispensable companion, offering insights and strategies to reclaim outdoor spaces and safeguard communities from the nuisance and potential health risks posed by these diminutive yet formidable adversaries.

The Life Cycle Of Mosquitoes

Female mosquitoes produce eggs, which are either positioned along the surface of standing water alone or in groups. The eggs soon transition into larvae, which hover near the water’s surface and feed on tiny organisms or organic materials. The larvae develop into pupae for several days before reaching adulthood, when their wings emerge and they take flight.

The Health Threats Posed By Mosquitoes

Do mosquitoes bite or sting? Technically speaking, mosquitoes neither bite nor sting humans and animals. Female mosquitoes use a special mouthpart called a proboscis that allows them to pierce the skin and extract blood.

Throughout the world, agencies of public health at the federal and local levels create lists of diseases caused by mosquitoes. They provide information regarding repellents and perform other educational functions. Some of the primary health risks of mosquitoes in the world include West Nile virus, dengue, chikungunya, encephalitis, malaria, and tularemia.

Tips And Tricks To Deter Mosquitoes

Are you looking for solutions regarding the best ways of preventing mosquitoes? Homeowners and apartment dwellers with an intense mosquito problem should consider the following measures:

1.Remove any objects from yard areas that hold rainwater, such as old tires, tarps, or wheelbarrows. 2. Promptly address leaky hoses or spigots and keep gutters and downspouts clean. 3. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends repellents containing IR3535 or DEET to prevent mosquito bites. This stands good for around the world as well. 4. Applying 0.5% permethrin to clothing and gear has proven to be an effective means of repelling mosquitoes. 5. Avoid outdoor activity during the hours of dusk and dawn, when mosquitoes are most active. 6. While these tips can help you avoid some bites, those with an excessive number of mosquitoes on their properties should promptly contact a professional mosquito management service like Ultima Search for help getting rid of mosquitoes.

Effective Mosquito Control: How Ultima Search Professionals Ensure Lasting Results

Too many property owners try do-it-yourself sprays and other mosquito control products that are often sold in local home improvement stores. Unfortunately, most of these options prove ineffective or simply create further aggravation. Contacting an experienced professional is the best choice for repelling mosquitoes from your yard and your home.

Ultima Search Mosquito Control Management services employ a seasoned team of mosquito specialists. As a comprehensive provider, we offer both recurring mosquito treatment plans and one-time services. Our experts typically deploy botanical solutions for targeting mosquitoes that leave no residual odour. Those who choose our ongoing property protection plan will have quarterly treatment visits that form a virtual perimeter of defence against these troublesome and potentially harmful flying pests.

Ultima Search Mosquito Control also offers one-time pretreatment services for instances like outdoor gatherings, which are performed shortly before the event. Keep in mind that we always stand behind the quality of our work with a satisfaction guarantee. Our organization remains among the industry leaders and uses many of the latest options recommended by the Government, pest control bodies, and other advocates.

#Mosquito #Mosquito Control #Pest Control #Pest Control Service #Home Improvement

[monstruous-pictures-present-blog]

📆 19 Aug 2022 📰 Innate immunity to malaria: The good, the bad and the unknown 🗞 Frontiers

Blood stage malaria manifests as a severe inflammatory disease in naïve individuals. In animal models, genetic ablation of innate sensing pathways often offer survival benefits pointing towards a role for dysregulated inflammatory signaling in innate cells in malaria pathology (80). However, reductionist co-culture systems with intact parasites generally seem to reveal nuanced responses of innate cells that often show a lack of, or reduced inflammatory signaling (54), unless parasites are added in high quantities or stimulatory ligands are purified.

To understand this seeming contradiction, a biomass comparison may be made between a Plasmodium blood stage infection, sporozoite immunization and sepsis caused by E. coli (Table 1). A blood stage Plasmodium infection can involve hundreds of billions of parasites with a total biomass of several grams. Nonetheless, such infections are frequently tolerated by the host, even in naive or semi-immune individuals. In contrast, a septicemic E. coli infection can induce a life-threatening cytokine storm with one millionth of the amount of antigen. This comparison argues that on a per-pathogen and per gram biomass basis, blood stage parasites have a relatively low inflammatory capacity as compared to bacteria. Interestingly, comparatively low numbers of sporozoites can induce sterile immunity when used as a vaccine, while 6 orders of magnitude more blood stage parasites do not suffice.

Understanding the mechanistic basis for this difference could be highly valuable. An explanation for these observations can likely be found considering the pressure that evolution exerts on host parasite interactions. This pressure likely favored different outcomes for pre-erythrocytic and blood stage parasites, especially considering their respective roles during the parasite life cycle: While only a single sporozoite needs to productively infect a hepatocyte to complete its mission, blood stage parasites need to keep proliferating in the blood for long periods of time to ensure successful uptake of gametocytes into a feeding mosquito.

Thus, blood stage parasites were subject to high evolutionary pressure to survive host sensing pathways to avoid destruction by innate or adaptive immunity. On the other hand, sporozoites might have evolved to very efficiently reach host hepatocytes while being much less manipulative regarding innate sensing pathways. Their high success rate allows only very few sporozoites to be deposited into the skin during a mosquito blood feed, limiting the amount of PAMPs to be detected and the amount of antigen available for the induction of protective immunity.

[jenkinspestsanantoniotx]

Pest Control Solutions: Mosquitoes

Pest Control Solutions: Mosquitoes

There are over 3,000 species of mosquitoes found worldwide, and 120 found in the United States. Mosquitoes are an annoyance because of their parasitic nature. They also can be a serious health hazard due to their ability to transmit blood borne parasites that cause disease.

Unfortunately, most people have encountered mosquitoes and with them, mosquito bites. What people might not know is the role these bites play in the mosquito biological cycle. Female mosquitoes require a blood meal to develop fertile eggs. Males, not having eggs, do not need blood meals and thus do not bite. The welts that result from mosquito bites happen because females inject saliva under the skin of hosts to prevent blood from clotting as it is sucked into the food canal. When people are allergic to the saliva, itchy welts are produced. Mosquito Control San Antonio

Since blood is used for reproduction only, not food, both males and females rely on sugar for energy. They get this from plant nectar, fruit juices, and oozing plants.

Mosquitoes are cold-blooded creatures; therefore, their activity level is based on the temperature. They thrive at 80 degrees, become lethargic at 60 degrees and can’t function below 50 degrees. Because of this temperature requirement, mosquitoes are active year-round in tropical climates and only in the summer in temperate climates. At the onset of cold in temperate climates, mosquitoes hibernate throughout the winter in places such as animal burrows, hollow logs, and basements.

Mosquitoes have four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. In their larval and pupal stages, they stay in water, mainly still water. This is where the concept of mosquito control through water removal is important. By removing standing water from the premises of a property, removal of eggs, larva, and pupa is achieved as well. Many species overwinter in frozen water as eggs and, in the spring, emerge to start the cycle of reproduction again by seeking a blood meal and laying more eggs.

How exactly are mosquitoes attracted to people? The major way that they seek out hosts is by following the streams of carbon dioxide exuded through breathing. Other desirable factors include dark clothing, perspiration, and artificial fragrances from detergents, fabric softeners, and perfumes.

Besides causing annoyances and minor discomfort, mosquitoes also cause disease. In fact, they are the most formidable transmitters of disease in the animal kingdom. Disease is transmitted when the mosquito picks up a parasite in the blood of a host. When inside the mosquito, the parasite will then continue in its life cycle, multiply, or change form. After laying eggs as a result of that blood meal, the mosquito will seek another host to continue laying more eggs. It is at this point that the parasite is transferred to the next host. Diseases transferred in this way are malaria, encephalitis, yellow fever, and West Nile virus amongst several others.

To reduce the risk posed by mosquitoes, you need to reduce the risk of being bit. There are two ways to do this. The first is to eliminate population sources and the second is to protect your body. Following is a list of ways to reduce their breeding:

Dispose of unwanted tin cans and tires

Clean clogged roof gutters and drain flat roofs

Flush sump-pumps weekly

Stock ornamental pools with fish

Change water in birdbaths, fountains, and troughs twice a week

Clean and chlorinate swimming pools; when not regularly used, they should be emptied

Turn over unused wading pools and other containers that tend to collect rainwater

Cover containers tightly with window screen or plastic when storing rainwater for garden use during drought periods

For personal protection for you and your family, follow these suggestions:

Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants

Stay indoors at dawn and dusk when mosquitoes are most active

Use mosquito netting on baby carriages and playpens when your baby is outdoors

Make sure screens are repaired and tightly attached to doors and windows

Avoid camping overnight near freshwater swamps to reduce your risk of exposure to mosquitoes

Use mosquito repellent and follow manufacturer’s directions on the label

To expand on the last suggestion, to wear relent, certain precautions should be taken when using DEET (N-N-diethyl-meta-toulamide) containing products. DEET can be applied to skin and clothing, but has the potential to damage certain fabrics and to be absorbed into skin. For this reason, no repellent with a concentration above 30-35% should be used on adults. Additionally, nothing over 10-15% should be used on children. Anything above 30-35% does not offer more protection, although it does last longer. In the interest of safety, it would be best to simply reapply repellent with a lower concentration of DEET. After your time outdoors, wash skin with soap and water and launder clothes that have been sprayed with repellent.

Advanced Technology

In the last 20 years, there has been great improvements in the materials being released to the pest control industry. These materials rival their earlier counterparts in their ability to control pest without the annoying odor or high toxicity. There has been many changes in the way companies are treating pest these days. 

we are in the forefront of these changes, with the introduction of baits and new low toxicity materials, pest control does not have to be an unpleasant experience it was in years past.

Problem Pests

Every year termites, carpenter ants, powder post beetles, and other wood boring insects destroy thousand of homes. Other pests can also lead to major problems. We offer a variety of pest control options, which allow you to protect your investment without depleting your savings. From our one time guaranteed service to one of our service plans we are the company to call.

One Time Service

Your satisfaction is important to us, if any of our services fail to keep your home free of the pests we serviced your home for, we’ll re-service it for free! Guarantees for one time services are based on the pest treated. The length of guarantee is based on the specific pest treated. Ask one of our representatives what the guarantee is at the time you set up the service.

Residential Service Plans

We provide various types of service plans to fit all types of needs. From monthly to annually. All performed by trained technicians using the least amount of materials in the most strategic locations.

A typical service plan covers carpenter ants, spiders, mice, rats, centipedes, crickets, roaches, earwigs, sow bugs, silverfish, fleas, and pantry pests.

If you have a problem with a pest that is not covered under the service plan, such as birds, termites and squirrels. We will provide the service with a discount from our normal pricing schedule.

The post Pest Control Solutions: Mosquitoes appeared first on Jenkins Pest.

Originally published here: https://jenkinspest.com/2023/06/26/pest-control-solutions-mosquitoes/

#Jenkins Pest

[fantajoseph]

It's obviously not as harmful as it's opposite, but I think there has been a bit of an over correction to thinking nature is just-so, that any animal moving to a new area is inherently going to wreck everything, that it never changes outside human intervention and that every creature benefits the whole. But like, animals have been moving to new areas as long as there have been animals, so nature has been changing. The last one is close to true but like. Malaria is my go to example, it is a parasite that lives its entire life cycle in blood, where nothing is supposed to live. Nothing else gets to eat it, it just kills something and barely eats any of it.

But yeah like I said, this is definitely less wrong than the alternate stance, so idk. Maybe I'm just being an asshole pointing to the one exception.

[jmitrasm]

overview

Symptoms of Malaria, Diagnosis, and prevention

The most common infectious tropical disease is Malaria and an enormous public health issue. It is a parasitic disease characterized by fever, chills, and anemia caused by the malaria parasite, which is transmitted from one human to another by the bite of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. The four malaria parasites that can infect humans: are Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae. One more species ;P. knowlesi, which naturally infects macaques in Southeast Asia & also infects humans, is transmitted from animal to human.

In most parts of the country, about 90% of malaria is unstable with relatively low incidence but with a risk of increasing cases in epidemic form every 7 to 10 or more years. Malaria mortality in India is only due to P. falciparum as it causes cerebral Malaria and may lead to death (48-52% of total cases). Millions of people worldwide, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, are affected by malaria each year, which is a major public health concern. The diseases can be avoided by taking antimalarial medications, using insecticide-treated bed nets, and indoor residual spraying. For lessening the severity of the diseases and halting their spread, early diagnosis and treatment are also crucial.

Symptoms of malaria

12 Common Symptoms of Malaria:

https://jmitra.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Symtoms-of-malaria-1024x1024.png

Fever

Chills

General feeling of discomfort

Headache

Nausea and vomiting

Diarrhea

Abdominal pain

Muscle or joint pain

Fatigue

Rapid breathing

Rapid heart rate

Cough

Malaria sufferers can have recurrent "attacks." Typically, an attack begins with chills and shivering, then a high fever, followed by perspiration and a return to normal body temperature.

Typically, a few weeks after being bitten by an infected insect, malaria signs and symptoms appear. Certain malaria parasite strains, however, can slumber in your bloodstream for up to a year.

Symptoms of malaria

"The malaria transmission cycle consists of the following stages”:

Female Anopheles: mosquitos become infected with the Plasmodium parasite after feeding on the blood of an infected human. Inside the mosquito, the parasite multiplies and migrates to the salivary glands.

Mosquito bites human: The parasite is then injected into the person's bloodstream by the infected mosquito.

Parasites multiply in the liver: The parasite enters the liver and multiplies within the cells of the liver.

Mosquitoes become infected: When a mosquito bites an infected person, it can contract the parasite and spread it to other humans through subsequent bites.

This cycle will continue as long as infected humans and mosquitos are present, causing malaria to spread in affected communities. To break the transmission cycle, efforts are made to control the mosquito population, treat infected people, and prevent mosquito bites by using insecticide-treated bed nets and other measures.

Symptoms of malaria

Complications Arises due to malaria in humans:

Malaria is a potentially fatal disease caused by a parasitic infection of red blood cells. Malaria complications can vary depending on a number of factors, including the type of parasite that causes the infection, the age and general health of the person infected, and how quickly the infection is diagnosed and treated. Malaria complications in humans include the following.

Anemia: Malaria can cause anaemia, a condition in which the body does not have enough red blood cells to         transport oxygen to the tissues. Fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, and other symptoms can be caused by anaemia.

Cerebral malaria:  Is a severe form of malaria that affects the brain and can result in seizures, confusion, coma, and death. It is more common in young children and pregnant women.  

Kidney failure: In severe cases, malaria can damage the kidneys and cause kidney failure, which can be life-threatening.

Respiratory distress: Malaria can cause acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a severe lung condition characterised by shortness of breath, coughing, and low blood oxygen levels.

Liver failure: Malaria can cause liver failure in rare cases, leading to a variety of serious complications such as jaundice, fluid buildup in the abdomen, and confusion.

Low blood sugar: Malaria can result in hypoglycemia, a condition in which blood sugar levels fall dangerously low. This can result in fatigue, confusion, seizures, and even coma. 

Pregnancy complications: Malaria infection during pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, premature birth, and low birth weight.

If you suspect you have malaria, it is critical to seek medical attention as soon as possible because early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Symptoms of malaria

Diagnosis, and prevention

Malaria can be treated in 2 days if a timely diagnosis is performed. However, delays in diagnosis/treatment can be fatal.

Malaria diagnosis by rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) based on antigen ( HRP-2 /pLDH) detection is recommended by WHO for all patients before administering treatment.

https://jmitra.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/2-1024x1024.png

As per NACO guidelines, all blood units in a blood bank must be tested for malaria parasites using a validated and sensitive antigen test. Malaria Diagnosis is usually preferred by using ELISA ‘an Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, a screening test used to detect Plasmodium species based on pLDH Antigen inpatient whole blood. In Blood Banks & Labs equipped with ELISA Reader and washer, prefer processing a large number of samples in a 96 microwell plate with a turnaround time of 2 -3 hours for 90 samples.

Malaria Rapid diagnostic Card tests (RDTs) based on antigen ( HRP-2 /pLDH) detection are visual tests with a user-friendly test procedure. There is no need for a skilled microscopist & and equipment to provide accurate test results within 20 minutes. These are based on lateral immunochromatography sandwich immunoassay, and their performance is validated against well-characterized panels of Malaria parasites as per intended use.

J Mitra & Co. offers both ELISA (Malaria Ag Microlisa) & a wide range of 5 different Rapid Antigen card tests for screening and diagnosis of Malaria parasites based on HRP-2 &/OR pLDH antigen. Symptoms of malaria

Malaria is a serious illness; however, one can lower the risk of infection by taking preventative measures; protecting oneself from mosquito bites, and intermittent treatment with antimalarial and insecticide-treated bed nets. As a result, there will be a decline in malaria cases by 84.4 percent and their deaths by 83.6 percent in 2020. Symptoms of malaria

Awareness about the disease, continual use of preventative measures & an early and accurate diagnosis is essential for effective management of the disease and solid malaria surveillance.

Symptoms of malaria Symptoms of malaria Symptoms of malaria

#jmitra.co.in

[httpsmoshield]

Best mosquito control services

Mosquitoes are a major annoyance for people all over the world and they is not just a nuisance but also carry numerous diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus. As a result,

controlling the mosquito population is crucial to protect yourself and your loved ones. One way to do this is by employing mosquito control services, which are offered by many companies today.

Mosquito control services aim to reduce the number of mosquitoes in an area by eliminating their breeding grounds and killing the adult mosquitoes. These services use a variety of methods to achieve their goals, including chemical treatments, parricides, and adulticides.

Chemical treatments involve the application of pesticides to the environment where mosquitoes are present. These pesticides are designed to kill mosquitoes and other pests but are often harmful to humans and other animals. Therefore, it is crucial to use the right amount and type of pesticide to avoid any negative impact on the environment.

Larvicides are another method used by mosquito control services. These are chemicals that are specifically designed to target and kill mosquito larvae, which are the immature stages of the mosquito life cycle. Larvicides can be applied to standing water, which is where mosquitoes typically lay their eggs. Once the eggs hatch, the larvae will be exposed to the larvicide and die.

Adulticides are chemicals that target adult mosquitoes. These chemicals can be applied using sprays or foggers, and they work by killing adult mosquitoes on contact. Adulticides are generally considered to be less effective than larvicides, as they only target the adult mosquitoes that are present at the time of the treatment. However, they can still be effective at reducing the number of mosquitoes in an area. Read More...

[mdxlearningjournal]

Animal: Research on Bed bugs

The animal I was given to research for this project was Bed bugs (Cimex Lectularius). They’re a small type of flightless insect that are known for being blood sucking parasites. As they are nocturnal, they take this opportunity to feed on those who are sleeping, so when they are still small in numbers it makes them harder to find. This hugely benefits them as they need to feed on blood as much as possible in order to shed and reach maturity, to then reproduce. Being so small with a flat build, means they can travel quickly across different surfaces and can safely take refuge in all kinds of crevices. The most common place for a bed bug to reside would most likely be in mattresses and headboards, this is because it creates easy access to their victims at night. Unlike other small insects’ bedbugs do not have nests and do not rely on each other for survival but will congregate in groups when resting. However, once their numbers have grown too many they tend to disperse and find shelter in other things such as furniture, clothing and can even travel across houses (Dunkin, 2022).

When someone has been bitten by a bed bug, they usually experience symptoms such as, itchiness, irritation, and soreness. These bites can often be found in straight lines or a uniform patten. In some cases, people can suffer with a more extreme reaction, causing the bites to turn in to lesions, welts or even infection (Arezki, 2020). These infestations can also have a large impact on a person’s mental health, which can often lead to social isolation. Sleep deprivation from being awakened by scratching bites creates this “Itch-scratch cycle”, this then can cause psychological distress to manifest as nightmares (Arezki, 2020). While bedbugs get quite a bad rap for their nature and can carry pathogens on their bodies, there is little to no proof that they transmit disease to humans.

In the 1940’s a pesticide called DDT was created to decrease the spread of diseases such as Malaria, Typhus, and other insect- borne illnesses to those at war. It also became one of the main ways to get rid of bed bugs too as it was effective. However, in the 70’s it became banned as the harsh chemicals was found to be extremely damaging on wildlife populations such as birds (Davies et al., 2012). Since then, there has been a large increase of bed bug infestations as they have built up a tolerance to these pesticides. I also think that there has been an increase due to more people travelling, especially after the Covid-19 Pandemic. Most Bed bugs will spread through luggage when people go abroad, this makes it very difficult to contain and control as you can’t stop people from travelling.

There is so much stigma against animals that don’t fit our society’s standard, animals that aren’t seen as “cute” and “fluffy” but rather seen as “gross” and “ugly” are cast away and demonized. We anthropomorphise animals that we have a sense of sentimentality towards, like with dogs we obsess over them because we get their love regardless. I think we connect with animals more than insects because they have similar eyes to us, it’s almost like we can connect with their soul because of that similarity. Peter Singer argued that we should reject speciesism and that animals that have an interests like humans (Not wanting to die) should be considered equal to us (Singer, 1975). I feel as though most animals and insects have that natural urge to survive so in this case should be treated equal. I think it’s weird that we have the choice to make these decisions, animals are just as important, in fact you could say they are more important because they keep the natural cycle of life going. The human population is incredibly vast and take up a lot of space, yet we are the ones trying to make animals and insects extinct. This fear against insects like bed bugs comes from not really understanding them, they are hated because of how they naturally are. To put it into perspective it’s like having a dislike to a person that can’t see, it’s outrageous because it’s not something they can control. From doing this research it’s raised the question whether bed bugs are directly the problem or is it the social and economic repercussions that are the issue.

Reference list:

Arezki, I. 2020, ‘Bed Bugs’, The New England Journal of Medicine: Boston. Vol. 382, no. 23. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2409241657?pq-origsite=primo

Davies, T. G. E., Field, L. and Williamson, M. S. Medical and Veterinary entomology, 2012, Vol.26 (3), p.241-254 https://resjournals-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy.mdx.ac.uk/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2915.2011.01006.x

Dunkin, M. A. 2022. ‘Bedbugs’, WebMD. Available at:https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/guide/bedbugs-infestation (Accessed: 12 January 2023)

Singer, P. 1975, Animal Liberation 2nd Edition, HarperCollins

[mosquitoguyinc]

The Best Mosquito Control Company MA & RI Is By The Mosquito Guy

The Best Mosquito Control Company MA & RI Is By The Mosquito Guy

Mosquito season is here, and there is no doubt that Massachusetts and Rhode Island are buzzing with questions about mosquito services and prevention. While you may have questions such as “where do mosquitoes breed, or how to prevent mosquito bites,” Don’t Worry! The Mosquito Guy is here to help clear up your FAQ questions about mosquitos and provide you the Best Mosquito Control Services In Dennis MA  and Rhode Island.

Why Do Mosquitoes Bite?

Not all mosquitoes bite, surprise, surprise. Only females are responsible for the itchy spots you get in the summer. Taking blood from an animal host allows the female to produce healthy eggs as part of their natural reproductive cycle each summer. Mosquitoes breed constantly during their short life, requiring fresh blood every two days. Did you know mosquitoes’ main source of nourishment is nectar from growing flowers ad not blood from animals?

Female mosquitoes lay their eggs in still water places or anywhere that has sufficient moisture for their eggs. These areas include: near your pool, gutters, tires, bird baths, kiddie pools, areas that gather pools of rain, or other water fixtures. Mosquitoes can live anywhere from as little as a week to as long as several months. This makes mosquito prevention for homeowners nearly impossible without the intervention of pest control professionals.

How Do Mosquitoes Spread Diseases?

Mosquitoes are carriers of several diseases such as dengue virus, West Nile virus, malaria, chikungunya, and Zika virus. By feeding off of several animals in their lifespan, blood from separate animals can spread. Diseases that are not common in the United States such as malaria can be spread by individuals traveling from different countries. According to the Center for Disease Control, “Malaria occurs in more than 100 countries and territories. About half of the world’s population is at risk. Large areas of Africa and South Asia and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania are considered areas where malaria transmission occurs.”

However, there are ways for you to enhance mosquito protection in Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The use of insect repellents is often an effective way to temporarily protect areas of exposed skin while spending time outside where mosquitoes are present. When choosing an insect repellent, be sure only to select products that have DEET in it since this is currently referred to as the most effective ingredient for short-term mosquito protection available to consumers. Keeping your skin completely covered is your best defense against mosquito bites.

#tick control dennis ma

[malariablog1234]

Reflections

Frances: By studying Malaria, I found that not only is it very dangerous, but it also has many social justice issues. These issues can lead to certain groups getting access to treatment while others do not. Individually, I probably would not have researched Malaria as thoroughly, so this research helped me develop a better understanding of the underlying issues surrounding the disease. I learned about the symptoms, treatment, transmission, and so much more that I would never know. As I mentioned earlier, things are keeping people from getting treatment, especially issues financially. With and without treatment, Malaria can be fatal. I have new knowledge about who is more likely to suffer from Malaria and the statistics really surprised me. The life cycle which develops from a host mosquito was also something that I had never thought about. Overall, this project gave me more insight into a disease I most likely would have never studied. I think that it is important to research diseases more prominent in other countries because it helps you become more empathetic and understanding to others. 

Carew: I learned a lot about Malaria. I would have never learned this much about it because it is not an issue in the US. I learned about malaria and also the challenges that people have in places where it is present. I learned that Malaria can be very serious and even fatal. I learned a lot about the disease and even the places where it spreads. I learned about Africa and how the intense heat is good for the parasite that is responsible for Malaria. The heat makes Africa a perfect place for the disease to spread and the poverty keeps the people there from getting the treatment that they need. The social issue here is classism. This issue is present all around the world, not just in Africa. Classism affects people in lots of different places including America. I learned how it can change someone's life. If people don't have money to get the correct treatment for malaria it can be fatal. 

Milton: During this study of Malaria in partnership with the WHO I was able to learn a lot more about this particularly troublesome disease. I learned about the social injustices that come with the disease. We need to help the impoverished countries in Africa to help eradicate the disease for good. I also learned why Malaria occurs more in Africa and South America. It's because they're near the equator and as we all know the equator is hotter than most other places in the world.  I also learned what exactly causes Malaria.  I learned that it is not the mosquito that causes it.  The mosquito is just the vector that helps transmit the parasite. The parasite is what actually causes Malaria.  The parasite's life cycle occurs both within mammals and inside of the mosquitos. Their life cycle is a fairly complicated on and they need food from the animal or the mosquito to be able to live because they are heterotrophs. Overall I learned that Malaria is a very big problem in impoverished countries near the equator.

[besttop10s]

TOP 10 SCARIEST ANTS OF ALL TIME:

10) The Giant Ants of Brazil

 Giant ants have been known to kill people and eat them whole, but this is the scariest one yet! These ants are so big that they can actually climb up walls. They're also very aggressive and will attack anything in their path. If you see a giant ant, RUN! 

9) The Crazy Ants of Belize

 These ants are bright red and only come out at night. They attack by leaping onto their victims and injecting them with an addictive toxin. The victim then becomes a "believer" and follows the ant back to its colony, where he is accepted as a full member. Once there, he serves the ants by working all day and night. Only then does the ant let him sleep for a few hours. The victim slowly loses all free will and his life, until he's completely ant- mind. I think that's enough to qualify this as one of the scariest ants! 

8) The Harvester Ants of Oregon

 These large, aggressive ants have a weird way of getting food. They'll march thousands of ants to their prey, all attacking in formation. The victim is most likely some kind of animal, and it's stalked and tormented until death. Then, the ant family takes what they need, usually the brain, from the poor creature's corpse. 

7) The Screaming Ants of Texas

 These ants, who can reach up to 10 millimeters in length, scare their prey by screaming at exceptionally high pitches. They'll also have a few other tricks up their sleeves. They've been known to release a certain gas from special glands when annoyed, and they can also drop hundreds of eggs from a distance by releasing a sticky substance. If that isn't terrifying enough, they'll also attack in large numbers. Think of them as little red terrorists. 

6) The Roar of the Jungle

 This is yet another scary ant, and the biggest one on this list. The Roar of the Jungle can grow up to 12 millimeters long, and while that doesn't sound too impressive, keep in mind that they're almost as long as an index finger. That means these things can reach up to 30% of your entire body length! That's already pretty scary enough, but these ants are also known to get really aggressive. They've killed people, which means they'd kill these people if they found them. 

5) The Devil's Crazy Ants of Madagascar

 Madagascar is home to a bunch of really weird and unique creatures and plants, but one of the strangest is the devil's crazy ants. These ants have one queen, but instead of worker ants, they have... soldier ants. Yes, soldiers. They're used for two purposes; defending the colony against predators and feeding upon dead animals. The feeding takes place underground, where the devil's ants live. Their prey is brought back to the colony where it's either eaten or used for building materials. No wonder these ants have earned their reputation. 

4) The Sugar Ants of Texas

 Sugar ants are a pain to have around, that's for sure. They're aggressive and bite, and they can spread diseases like typhus and malaria. They also eat a lot of food, which means they need a lot of food, which means you need to provide it. It's a vicious cycle. However, they aren't as bad as some of the ants on this list. 

3) The Red Ants of the Amazon

 Also known as the "sting ants," Red ants are among the most painful insects you're likely to ever encounter. Their venom is a very potent cocktail of chemicals that can actually cause a rash when they inject it into your skin. The effects are worse if you're allergic to the red dye they're probably injected with. Fortunately, they only attack in large groups and only ants do that, so you have a chance. 

2) The Crazy Ants of the Amazon

 These ants build large, underground colonies, which they protect from predators with bizarre rituals. When threatened, they release a fungus that causes people to act crazy. It's as if the creatures from The Ants were bred into existence, then got out of their cages and started running amok. 

1) The Irritating Yellow Siblings of the Jiangjun Mountains

 These are the only insect on this list, but that doesn't make them any less frightening. They're a frequent sight in the mountainous area of northern China near the border of North Korea. The most alarming aspect of them is their relentlessness. They sit on your windowsills every day, never leaving.

What's your favorite scary insect?

#tw #ants #horror #eww #eek! #creepy crawlies #lethal #dangerous #true fear #real

[religion-is-a-mental-illness]

https://www.malariavaccine.org/malaria-and-vaccines/vaccine-development/life-cycle-malaria-parasite

The malaria parasite develops both in humans and in the female Anopheles mosquitoes. The size and genetic complexity of the parasite mean that each infection presents thousands of antigens (proteins) to the human immune system.

The parasite also changes through several life stages even while in the human host, presenting different antigens at different stages of its life cycle. Understanding which of these can be a useful target for vaccine development has been complicated. In addition, the parasite has developed a series of strategies that allow it to confuse, hide, and misdirect the human immune system.

Malaria infection begins when an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a person, injecting Plasmodium parasites, in the form of sporozoites, into the bloodstream.

The sporozoites pass quickly into the human liver.

The sporozoites multiply asexually in the liver cells over the next 7 to 10 days, causing no symptoms.

In an animal model, the parasites, in the form of merozoites, are released from the liver cells in vesicles, journey through the heart, and arrive in the lungs, where they settle within lung capillaries. The vesicles eventually disintegrate, freeing the merozoites to enter the blood phase of their development.*

In the bloodstream, the merozoites invade red blood cells (erythrocytes) and multiply again until the cells burst. Then they invade more erythrocytes. This cycle is repeated, causing fever each time parasites break free and invade blood cells.

Some of the infected blood cells leave the cycle of asexual multiplication. Instead of replicating, the merozoites in these cells develop into sexual forms of the parasite, called gametocytes, that circulate in the blood stream.

When a mosquito bites an infected human, it ingests the gametocytes, which develop further into mature sex cells called gametes.

The fertilized female gametes develop into actively moving ookinetes that burrow through the mosquito's midgut wall and form oocysts on the exterior surface.

Inside the oocyst, thousands of active sporozoites develop. The oocyst eventually bursts, releasing sporozoites into the body cavity that travel to the mosquito's salivary glands.

The cycle of human infection begins again when the mosquito bites another person.

==

“tHe wOrLd iS tOo bEaUt1fUl t0 n0t bE dEs1gNeD!1!!”

#malaria #human malaria parasite #god is incompetent #god of incompetence #incompetence #cruel god #god of cruelty #cruelty #religion #religion is a mental illness

[oncexinxmyxdreams]

OC Profile

Mercedes Reyes (Encanto.)

Bio

Name: Mercedes Yarisel Cordova Reyes. Nicknamed Mercie or Merce.

Age: Story would start when she's 10; majority when she's in her mid-late teens and she passes away at 35.

Ethnicity: Colombian.

Species: Human.

Height: Exactly 5 feet tall. She's 4 inches shorter than Bruno.

Weight: 122 pounds.

Hair color: Dark brown.

Hair style: Mid-back length and no bangs. Likes changing it day by day: a loose braid, a bun, two braids etc. She starts wearing her hair down and free more often when she turns 16.

Eye color: Jade green. (Maybe have a pic of what color I mean in a separate post.)

Birthday: October 20th, 1899. She's three days younger than the triplets.

Gender: Female.

Sexual Orientation: Straight.

Powers (if any): None.

Distinguishing features (if any): Round face, arched eyebrows, full lips and small narrow nose. Small hands, long legs, and petite hourglass figure. (Hips and bust size got a little bigger after her pregnancy.) Skin tone like Agustin.

Blood Type: A+

Clothing

Day to day outfit: Spring green tiered skirt with tiered lines in a slightly darker shade. Dark teal lacy petticoat. Short sleeve white top that has a ribbon laced through neckline that matches her skirt. Black alpargatas.

Pajamas/What they wear to bed: A white nightgown with some lace and olive-green ribbon.

Formal Clothes: Two of them. Her wedding dress which was her mother's. Her Quinceanera dress was champagne colored because she thought it looked romantic.

Work/School uniform: When working in the tavern she wears a reddish-pink skirt and blouse.

Other (glasses, jewelry, etc): Her wedding ring which is simple gold. Small hoop earrings that have a few light green beads. Sunhat with a minty blue ribbon. Wears a green hair ribbon(s) that match her skirt and later on Bruno's ruana.

Health

Physical Illnesses: Uneven menstrual cycle. Eventually dies from Malaria.

Mental Illnesses or disorders: Struggles with depression during her marriage.

Medications?: Different meds to help her with malaria, but they didn't work. If Julieta had been there Mercedes would've steadily recovered.

Addictions (Drugs, alcohol?): Nope.

General Health: Its mostly fine though she dies at 35 years old.

Life/Preferences:

Likes: Long walks, exploring, swimming, dancing, and reading romance novels. She likes listening to Bruno's ideas of telenovelas and sometimes napping with him under the trees after a bad day.

Dislikes: Arguing, being bored, her mother's dismissiveness and people mistreating others, especially Bruno.

Career: Dreamed of being an artist but ended working in a tavern with her in-laws.

Hobbies/Talents: Collecting rocks and painting.

Habits (good or bad): Chews pencils. Used to be a thumb sucker until she was 5.

Family: Her mother Maria Reyes and deceased father Vicente Cordova. Later on, she gains a stepfather, Armando Orozco and a half sister, Desideria. Mercedes calls her Desi. Reluctantly marries Pablo Salazar but has her beloved fraternal twin daughters Francisca and Alejandra.

Friends: Julieta and Pepa. Bruno is her best friend.

Romantic/Love Interest(s): A big crush on Enrique Beltran, a boy she and Pepa were both pining for at some point. Bruno sees a vision of him not treating either of them well.

Pets: Two donkeys: Diego (Bruno had a vision of him dying) and Eliana.

Social Status: Middle class.

Favorite Food: Arroz de Lisa (rice, vegetables and salted mullet which is a type of fish.) Favorite drink is Limonada de Coco (Lime juice, sugar and cream of coconut.)

Favorite Color: No particular favorite color. She loves soft shades, and it changes a lot as she grows. When she was little, she loved pink. Starts wearing spring green more often as a teen.

Favorite genre of music: Vallenato (A folk music genre of Colombia.)

Favorite movie genre: I don't think they have movies yet in Encanto. If there were, she'd love romantic dramas.

Favorite Animal: Coatis.

Degree of Education: Regular education. I think Jared Bush said there's a school in Encanto.

What language(s) can they speak?: Spanish and English.

Can they cook?: Yes. She's not as good as Julieta, but that's fine enough for her.

Personality

Positive Traits: Compassionate, loyal, idealistic, easygoing and romantic.

Negative Traits: Self-conscious, overly private and avoids conflict too much.

Archetype: The Lover.

Way they interact with others: Polite, but she's very private about herself. She won't open up to just anyone which makes people frustrated when they try to get to know her. When she's trustful of someone then she reveals more of herself. She prefers being alone/spend time with one person than a big group.

Way of speaking: Voice inspiration (like I usually do for ocs) is American-Colombian actress Zulay Henao.

Introvert or Extrovert?: Introvert. Her MBTI is INFP.

Backstory

Mercedes was born in Bogotá to Maria Reyes and Vicente Cordova. Unfortunately, Vincente passed away when she was little. Maria spent her grieving by traveling and finally settled in the Encanto when Mercedes was 10. She became friends with the triplets, but especially was close to Bruno. When Mercedes was 19, she was in an arranged marriage to Pablo Salazar thanks to Maria making a deal years before with old friends. Though Pablo was kind, Mercedes only liked him. They had little in common and she didn't want 10 babies! She was crushed to leave Encanto and never saw Bruno again.

Life Goals

Mercedes desires her own adventures like in her novels. They're romantic and theatrical. Her adventure just turned out different than she expected. Yet just because she passed away, didn't mean her adventure was over. It's connected through her daughters, and they're adventures which led them to Encanto and her childhood best friend.

#mercedes reyes #encanto #oc #not sure what to title the fanfic for this but we'll see #fanfic #fanfiction #maybe have Alejandra next? #bruno madrigal #encanto oc

[wisdomrays]

TAFAKKUR: Part 218

The Magical World of the Mosquito

O humankind! A parable is struck, so pay heed to it: Those whom, apart from God, you deify and invoke will never be able to create even a fly, even if all of them were to come together to do so. And if a fly snatches away anything from them, they cannot recover that from it. Powerless indeed is the seeker, and (so is) the sought! (Al-Hajj 22:73)

In some verses of the Qur’an, mosquitoes and other small creatures are mentioned; when these verses were revealed to Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, some unbelievers sarcastically responded, saying: “This does not seem like the word of God.” They mocked these verses as they thought that God Almighty would not give examples of such “trivial and non-significant” animals in His Book. Later, Almighty God revealed another verse related to these responses:

God does not disdain to strike any parable – (that of) something like a gnat or something greater or lower than it. Those who have already believed know that it is the truth from their Lord. As to those whose unbelief has long been established in their hearts, they say, “What does God mean by such a parable?” Thereby He leads many astray, and thereby He guides many. He thereby leads none astray save the transgressors. (Al-Baqara 2:26)

During the revelation of the Qur’an, biological and physical sciences were not adequate to explain and shed light onto some of the sublime verses regarding these small creatures. However, in this century we have witnessed astounding advances in science and now we are better able to understand the extraordinary structure of such creatures. Once again, we are amazed at the accuracy, precision and eloquence of the Qur’an, which illuminated not only the Age of Ignorance, but also the modern world. Even though for believers the harmony of the universe testifies to the existence of the All-Knowing One without a need for understanding the details of physics or biology, for non-believers masses of learning or years of scientific education may have led them astray. In this article, even though the Qur’anic verses mentioned above speak of flies in general, our focus will be given in particular to the biological aspects of mosquitoes.  

Mosquitoes are two-winged flies that belong to the family Culicidae. In nature there are approximately 3,500 species of mosquitoes. They have a pair of scaled wings, a pair of halteres,1 a slender body, and long legs. Their length varies, but is rarely greater than 16 mm (approximately 0,6 inches), and they can weigh up to 2,5 mg. A mosquito can fly for 1 to 4 hours continuously at up to 1 mile/h, traveling up to 6 miles in a night.2 Most species are nocturnal or crepuscular (dawn or dusk) feeders. During the heat of the day most mosquitoes rest in a cool place and wait for evening.

It is widely thought that mosquitoes are insects that live on blood.  On the contrary, this is not true, because not all mosquitoes suck blood; only female mosquitoes do. Mentioning the mosquito in the feminine form in the Qur’an can be considered to be one of its miracles, not only because the female mosquitoes are more powerful and complex than the males, but also because they transmit and spread diseases. The male mosquitoes appear only in breeding seasons and they feed only on plant juices.

Females do not require blood for their own survival, but they do need supplemental substances (like protein and iron) found in blood to develop eggs. Prior to and during blood feeding, they inject saliva into the bodies of their source(s) of blood. Female mosquitoes hunt their blood host by detecting carbon dioxide (CO2) and 1-Octen-3-ol from a distance. Circulating blood in animals and humans radiates body heat. Thanks to the sophisticated heat sensors installed in their body, mosquitoes follow body heat and exhaled gases and fly to their target. From an unbiased point of view, that who led to the creation of carbon dioxide and 1-Octen-3-ol must have led to the creation of the sensors of female mosquitoes, allowing them to sense these chemicals. That who created the eggs of mosquito must have been aware of the needs of these eggs. This process alone proves the extensiveness of mercy, knowledge, wisdom and encompassment of a Conscious Sustainer Who is operating behind all these processes.

When mosquitoes land on their prey they search for a thin place on the skin where a great deal of blood is passing. In order for the mosquito to obtain blood it must circumvent the physiological responses of the prey. The mosquito sprays the place from where it is to suck blood with a type of local anesthetic. When blood flows from a cut, with the help of enzymes the blood quickly coagulates. The mosquito uses an elusive mechanism to effectively block the clotting of blood with their saliva, which contains a complex mixture of secreted proteins. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that facilitate in sugar feeding as well as antimicrobial agents that control bacterial growth in the sugar. Mosquito saliva contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins.3 Although there has been great progress in determining these molecules and their role in bloodfeeding, scientists are still unable to ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in mosquito saliva.

In general, there are four distinct stages in the life cycle of the mosquito: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The adult is a flying insect, while the larvae and pupae are aquatic and live only in fresh water. All mosquito species lay their eggs on fresh water or on a moist surface. These eggs will not hatch until covered by rising water caused by rainfall, melting snow in the spring, or other such phenomena. The larvae of all mosquitoes live in water and have four developmental periods. In this stage, the larva actively feeds on organic material in the water. The larvae of most species have a breathing tube and come to the surface of the water to get oxygen. The durations of this stage depends on the species and the water temperature. The mosquito pupa is very active and lives in water. The pupa has a comma-shaped body with two visible separate regions. The tail of the comma is the developing abdomen of the mosquito. The abdomen is composed of nine segments. Between each abdominal segment are flexible areas that allow the pupa to swim. Active movement is unusual for most insect species during the pupal stage; however, mosquitoes will dive under water when the surface is disturbed or there is a disruption in light penetrating the water. The pupa has two large “paddles” on the eighth segment of the abdomen that propel it through the water as the abdomen flexes up and down. When the abdominal movement stops, the pupa floats back to the top of the water. A float hair, found on the first segment of the abdomen, helps the pupa to stabilize on the water’s surface. The pupal stage lasts for a few days and this is the stage when all the larval tissues change into adult tissues. The adult mosquito is capable of flying long distances. Males and females mate during the first 3 to 5 days after they have emerged from the pupal stage. Females mate only once. Males generally live for only a week and their primary function is reproduction.

The entire body of the adult mosquito is covered by an exoskeleton layer which provides the body with strength and support. The body of an adult mosquito has three regions, the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head contains the eyes, antennae, palpi,4 and mouthparts of the mosquito. Mosquitoes have compound eyes. This means their eyes are made up of numerous facets. Each facet is capable of forming a separate image. Therefore, the multi-imaging eye allows the mosquito to see movement over a large area, helping it to react quickly. The antennae are important sensory organs for the adult mosquito. They house a very significant sensory structure called the Johnston organ that helps to transmit movements of the antennae to the brain. The antennae differ according the sex of a mosquito. Males have many hairs on their antennae, making them look fury, while females have very few hairs. The mosquito has two sets of wings, the fore wings and the hind wings. The fore wings are used to propel the mosquito through the air, while the hind wings are highly modified structures that help to balance the mosquito during flight. Mosquitoes do not have lungs; rather, they receive oxygen through holes on their skins. These holes open and close according to the amount of oxygen the insect needs to function. Oxygen exchange takes place by diffusion. The mosquito has a needle, a hollow in the upper lip, which has a special cover used while sucking the blood from the skin of prey. The skin is not pierced by this needle, as thought, but by the upper mandible which look like a knife, and the lower mandible which has teeth leaning inward, that works and moves as a saw. The hollow lower lip has a lubricant that gathers the parts of the mouth as one organ. The skin of the prey is pierced by the upper mandible, which works as a knife, and in piercing the needle is inserted until it reaches a vein, and then the mosquito starts to suck blood. This process clearly indicates that mosquitoes have the necessary equipment to survive and sustain life in an amazing manner.

However, mosquitoes tend to carry various disease that spread viruses and parasites; they do not succumb to these diseases themselves. The principal mosquito-borne diseases are viral diseases, like yellow fever, dengue fever and malaria. Mosquitoes are thought to transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico and much of Asia, with millions resulting in deaths. At least 2 million people annually die of these diseases. The first Qur’anic verse mentioned above is also quite striking in terms of the disease spreading aspect of these insects. A powerless animal can snatch away the health of person who could be regarded as powerful; however, both of them are weak against the will of the One who created them.  

#allah #god #muhammad #prophet #quran #ayah #sunnah #hadith #islam #muslim #muslimah #hijab #help #dua #salah #pray #prayer #revert #convert #remindert #religion #welcome to islam #how to convert to islam #new muslim #new revert #new convert #revert help #convert help #islam help #muslim help

[onenicebugperday]

Ok but what about mosquitos? Why are they nice? (Willing to consider it I just don’t understand lol)

Mosquitoes are super interesting! Really, just do some reading about their life cycle, it’s cool. The way different bugs evolved to survive is wild. It is extremely unfortunate that they’re a vector for diseases like malaria that are so harmful for humans. But just like any animals, they do what they do to survive, and it’s not malicious.

That being said...I would rather not contract any of the many diseases they can carry or itch for days, so I will absolutely swat one that’s about to bite me or my dogs. Self preservation wins out over my love of bugs in that case.

#Anonymous

[sciencespies]

What we don't know about parasites in our changing world could be deadly

https://sciencespies.com/environment/what-we-dont-know-about-parasites-in-our-changing-world-could-be-deadly/

What we don't know about parasites in our changing world could be deadly

In the salt water marshes of southern California, a splashing killifish is easy prey for a hungry shorebird. Like a jerking marionette, the helpless creature shimmies and flashes on the surface of the water. And all the while, hiding deep in its brain, an invisible other quietly pulls the strings.

The puppeteer in question is the super-abundant parasitic flatworm known as Euhaplorchis californiensis. Throughout its life, this one parasite will infect no less than three animals, and a bird’s intestine is the final destination it wants to reach.

To get there, the parasite’s larva must penetrate a killifish, crawl to its brain and lay down a carpet of cysts, which it then uses to manipulate the host’s swimming, sending it thrashing to the surface.

As it happens, infected killifish are preyed on by birds some 10 to 30 times more, which means that parasites are essentially increasing the amount of resources available in the ecosystem: a relationship we often overlook in the natural world.

The story of the infected fish is a tantalising peak backstage, but it’s also a reminder of our sheer ignorance. As the world’s climate changes, we can’t ignore our parasites any longer.

A parasitic dark matter

Though often hidden to the human eye, parasites are, by some estimates, more than half of all known species on Earth. What’s more, they can influence virtually every other free-living animal.

Humans alone play host to nearly 300 types of parasitic worm, and around a third of us are currently infected, whether knowingly or not, with at least one.

They’re everywhere, on all sides, maybe even inside. And yet when we picture a classic food chain, how many of us remember the lions, zebras and grass, only to forget their hidden puppeteers?

Compared to free-living species, scientists have collected relatively scant information on parasites. Historically dominated by medical researchers and overlooked by ecologists and conservationists (Darwin himself viewed them as “degenerates“), these organisms are often entirely missing from modern depictions of food chains; even though, in the average ecosystem, parasite–host links actually outnumber predator–prey links.

Only in the last 30 years or so have we realised our mistake.

 (Cizauskas et al., Royal Society Open Science, 2017)

Above: Global distribution of parasite climate change research. Research on parasitic species is disproportionately oriented towards human emerging infectious diseases (EIDs), especially in countries where the majority of parasite research occurs.

When parasites like E. californiensis are included in the ecology of California’s salt marshes, the classic food web – with a few predators at the top and lots of smaller species on the bottom – is almost literally “turned on its head“.

“Essentially,” the authors of a 2008 paper explain, “a second web appears around the free-living web, and this completely changes the level of connectivity.”

Parasites are thus described as a sort of hidden “dark matter“, not only in our ecosystems but also in our models of infection. When Chelsea Wood, a parasite ecologist at the University of Washington, first started researching mass fishing nearly 15 years ago, she told ScienceAlert that we had virtually no idea how this practice might impact resident parasites.

Even now, she adds, when ecosystems are facing unprecedented changes, we have only the foggiest idea how more than half the species on Earth are coping.

Whether acknowledged or not, parasites are key indicators and shapers of healthy communities, influencing the survival and reproduction of whole host populations, causing food web cascades or even epidemics.

Some call them the “omnipresent agents of natural selection“, others the “ultimate missing links“, still others the “invisible puppeteers“.

Whatever the label, it’s about time we consider the parasite.

Shooting in the dark

If the history of medical science has taught us anything, Wood argues, it’s that the emergence of a new infectious disease can go unnoticed for a long time: the tale of HIV, jumping from primates to humans decades before we recognised it as a global epidemic, is a prime example.

Today, a similar story might be unfolding in our oceans, like a shadow, creeping up the wall behind us.

“We really are just starting to scratch the surface on whether a changing world means rising rates of infectious disease,” Wood told ScienceAlert.

In the last few years, scientists have grown ever more concerned that our planet is not only getting warmer, it’s also altering the spread and distribution of parasitic diseases.

A recent finding, not yet published by Wood’s lab, indicates that from 1978 to 2015, there was a 280-fold increase in Anisakis simplex, a cold water nematode responsible for some 20,000 cases of herring worm disease, usually contracted from eating raw or undercooked seafood.

Whether the trend is due to fishing, climate change or something else, is hard to say for now. In Arctic waters, where this nematode flourishes and climate change is at its worst, we often lack baseline and long-term data, even for the best known parasites and their diseases.

Unfortunately, this means our future projections can often fall short of the rich reality.

The domino effects of climate change on parasites and their hosts. (Cizauskas et al., Royal Society Open Science, 2017)

The latest climate-parasite models are trying to fill-in this blindspot, incorporating not only climate data, but also information on parasitic life cycles, ranges, and opportunities for new hosts.

The initial results suggest that climate change will play a much larger role in disease transfer than we once thought. But what that specifically means for bird-flu, human malaria, A. simplex or other parasitic diseases remains unresolved.

After all, wherever there’s few data, there’s plenty of doubt. Even Wood, who directly measures parasite prevalence, admits that her research may well contain a sneaking bias. Researchers, you see, tend to pay more attention to those parasites that matter to humans.

“No one cares about parasites that are diminishing into extinction, because they don’t hurt people, they don’t hurt animals, they don’t cause outbreaks, they don’t ruin your fish fillet, they don’t crawl across your plate at the sushi restaurant,” Wood explains.

But that doesn’t mean they aren’t a vital part of our ecology. While an increase or change in parasite populations will no doubt have serious repercussions for health and agriculture, the flip side may well entail ecological upheaval. Some parasites are certain to flourish, while others will likely decline and go extinct.

A 2017 study on 457 parasite species predicts that five to 10 percent are committed to this fate by 2070, solely from climate-driven habitat loss. The researchers went on to create the first “red list” for parasites.

“Accounting for host-driven coextinctions,” the authors write, “models predict that up to 30 [percent] of parasitic worms are committed to extinction, driven by a combination of direct and indirect pressures.”

Will the aforementioned E. californiensis number among these wormy losers? Will another invasive parasite take its place? What then will happen to the size, distribution and abundance of killifish? The hungry shorebird? The precious salt marshes? The humans who rely on them?

Gathering answers on the complexities of parasite-host dynamics in all the thousands of mammal and bird species is a simply impossible task, says Konstans Wells, a parasite ecologist and modeller at Swansea University.

“We need more data for certain aspects,” he told ScienceAlert, “but we certainly can’t sample everything and we also can’t wait with the modelling because there is always a need to make better forecasting or maps where diseases are being distributed.”

As the clock ticks, researchers must act like ghostbusters, hunting down invisible foes, diseases that don’t yet exist or have yet to re-emerge in some new unexpected location.

Danielle Claar, a postdoc working in Wood’s lab, is studying the effect of El Niño events in the parasite-rich Tropics, because she says these can act as windows into future warming. Others in the team are sifting through countless museum samples and old journals for evidence of the past.

“When you arrive into science you think everyone’s got everything figured out,” Wood says.

“But as you get deeper in you realise there’s so much we don’t know. It’s staggering.”

As the climate crisis takes a firm grip, squeezing some parasites out and holding on to others, what we don’t know could very will kill many. And that goes for both parasites and humans alike.

A version of this article was first published in June 2019.

#Environment

#Environment