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Tilling the fields, QMYS, Section 1

The Qimin yaoshu齊民要術 (“Essential Techniques for the Common People) by Jia Sixie (fl. c. 540), is the oldest Chinese agricultural treatise to survive in its entirety. Jia Sixie served as a mid-level official of Eastern Wei,as such the focus is on the dryland farming practices of his home region in modern Shandong rather than the wet rice agriculture of Southern China. The book itself mixes Jia Sixie's own advise and descriptions with quotations from earlier works, many of which are now lost. The QMYS is therefore not just an important source for the author's own times, but for the agricultural writings and practices of the preceding centuries.

Section 1 covers the different aspects of tilling the fields in preparation for cultivation, and contains advise for how to clear new fields, ploughing, harrowing, different soil types, and so on.

(To go straight to the translation, jump to "Section 1, Tilling the Fields")

[Translator's preface]

[The QMYS is not illustrated, but texts of this nature really should come with some visual aides. I have therefore included here some drawings and pictures from later eras. All images from Wikipedia.

[Farming tools]

Han era scholars agreed that China's first plough had been a tool called leisi耒耜, but lacked a clear of concept of how it actually looked like. Later authors simply repeated their statements. The drawing below from Wang Zhen's (1271-1333) Nongshu is therefore at best a reconstruction from literary evidence.

(Leisi耒耜, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

The main plough was instead the ox-pulled li犂 frame-plough.

(Li犂, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

(Shantung plow, from King, 1911, Farmers of forty centuries)

QMYS also refer to the lighter feng鋒 plough.

(Feng鋒, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

The QMYS is the oldest Chinese text to refer to the iron-tined harrow, which it refer to as loucou𨫒楱

(Ba耙, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

The lao勞 bush-harrow was made by weaving thin sticks around the cross-bars.

(Lao勞, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

The preferred tool for sowing was the seed drill, lou耬

(Louche耬車, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

In addition to these ox-drawn tools, there were of course a varity of manual tools in different shapes and sizes, hoes, shovels, etc.

(Youchu耰鋤, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

(Nou耨, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

(Chan鏟, from Wang Zhen's Nongshu)

(Method of using the broad, heavy hoe in producing surface mulch, as seen in Shantung, China, from King, 1911, Farmers of forty centuries)

[Crop plants]

Later sections of QMYS treats the cultivation of the individual crops in much larger detail.

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), gu穀, was the main staple crop.

Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), shu黍

In addition to gu and shu, different varieties of foxtail and broomcorn millet were known under a large number of other names.

Mung beans or green gram (Vigna radiata), lüdou緑豆 (lit. "green beans"), used as green manure in crop rotation with millet

Adzuki beans (Vigna angularis), xiaodou小豆 (lit. "small beans") served a similar function

Wheat (Triticum aestivum), mai麥 (same name also used for barley) was primarily a winter crop in ancient China.

[Books quoted by QMYS in Section 1, in order of appearance]

The Zhoushu周書 (“Book of Zhou”), also known as the Yi Zhoushu逸周書, is a Warring States era collection of documents about Western Zhou, but the book has a complicated textual history. It is quoted once in QMYS, in Section 1. The quoted text is not found in the transmitted version.

The Shiben世本 (“Generational Roots”) records the genealogies of mythical rulers, the origin of the clan names, and mythological and historical inventors. Several versions existed, by different authors. The full text now lost, but it is quoted numerous times in other works. It is quoted once in QMYS, in Section 1.

The Lüshi chunqiu呂氏春秋 (“Spring and Autumn of Mister Lü”) is a collection of treatises and essays attributed to the retainers of Lü Buwei, the (in)famous Qin chancellor. It covers a very wide range of topics.

The Erya爾雅 (“Approaching the Correct”) is the oldest surviving Chinese glossary. Modern scholarship dates the book to the late Warring States and/or early Western Han periods. It is quoted numerous times in QMYS.

The Jianwei shiren犍為舍人, the “Retainer from Jianwei”, lived during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han and wrote a commentary on the Erya. The book is now lost. The quote in Section 1 is the first of three in QMYS.

The Zuanwen 纂文 (“Compiled Graphs”) by the Liu-Song scholar and historian He Chengtian何承天 (370 – 447) is now lost. It is quoted once in QMYS, in Section 1.

The Shuowen 說文 (“Explaining Graphs”) by Xu Shen許慎 (c. 58 – c. 147) analyses the composition and reasoning behind the different characters. It is quoted numerous times in QMYS.

The Shiming釋名 (“Analysing Names”) by Liu Xi劉熙 is a glossary in the style of the Erya written c. 200 AD. The quote in Section 1 is the first of three in QMYS.

The Liji 禮記 (“Ritual Records”) is a collection of ritual treatises compiled from older texts during Former Han, it became part of the textual canon as one the Five Classics and also as one the Three Ritual Classics. Its usage in QMYS is restricted to the Yueling chapter.

The Yueling月令 (“Monthly Orders”) chapter of the Liji is a calendrical treatise describing for each of the twelve months the position of the stars and other seasonal markers, important state rituals, and which activities should be undertaken in each month. Its inclusion in the Liji ensured it what read by every person aspiring to an education and it inspired a whole genre of similar texts, such as the Simin yueling. It is extensively quoted in QMYS.

Zheng Xuan鄭玄(127 – 200) was a famous scholar at the end of Han who wrote an influential commentary on the Three Ritual Classics. In QMYS quotations from the Yueling and Zhouguan are usually accompanied by quotes from his annotations.

Mengzi孟子 (“Master Meng”, theLatin Mencius) collects the teachings of the famous Warring States era philosopher Meng Ke (372–289 BC). The quote in Section 1 is the first of three in QMYS.

Wei Wen-hou魏文侯, Marquis Wen of Wei, ruled Wei during the early Warring States era. The single quote in QMYS attributed to him is found in the Huainanzi.

The Book of Miscellanea on Yin and Yang雜陰陽書 was apparently written during the early Han, but is now lost outside the quotations in the QMYS. The quote in Section 1 is the first of eight in QMYS.

Gao You高誘 lived at the end of Han and wrote commentaries on several texts, including the Lüshi chunqiu and the Huainanzi. The quote in Section 1 is the first of eight in QMYS.

The Huainanzi淮南子 (“Masters of Huainan”) is a collection of philosophical treaties compiled during Western Han at the court of Liu An (179 – 122 BC), vassal king of Huainan. It covers a wide range of topics. The quote in Part 9 is the second of nine in QMYS, the first being in the preface (which I have impudently skipped).

The Fan Shengzhi shu氾勝之書 (“Book of Fan Shengzhi”) is the oldest known Chinese agricultural treatise. Fan Shengzhi might originally have been an easterner, but during the early Western Han served as an official in the Guanzhong region. The original book has been lost, but it is extensively quoted in the QMYS, and also by Tang and Song encyclopedias.

Cui Shi崔寔 (d. c. 170) was a Han official and author of multiple works, including the Simin yueling and Zhenglun.

The Simin yueling 四民月令 (“Monthly Orders for the Four People”) is written in the style of the Liji Yueling, detailing each month's agricultural activities at the large estates of late Han North China. The original book is lost except as fragments in other books. It is very extensively quoted in the QMYS.

The Zhenglun政論 (“Essay on Government”) criticizes what Cui Shi considered the decline in morals and lax administration of law in his time. The original book is lost except as fragments in other books. It is quoted once in QMYS, in Section 1.

[Lettered notes]

The original text is a mix of large and small characters. I have collected the small text sections together in idented lettered notes within {} brackets.]

[Translation starts here:]

Section 1, Tilling the Fields

[Dictionary definitions]

The Book of Zhou says: “In the time of the Divine Farmer, Heaven rained millet [su粟]. The Divine Farmer thereupon tilled and planted it. He created pottery, cast axes and hatchets, and made the plough-shaft and ploughshare [leisi耒耜], the long- [chu鉏] and short-handle hoe [nou耨], to clear the grass and thickets. Afterwards the Five Grains supported and helped, and the Hundred Fruits were stored in abundance.”

The Generational Rootssays: “Chui created the plough-shaft and ploughshare. Chui was a vassal of the Divine Farmer.”

The Spring and Autumn of Mister Lüsays: “The ploughshare is six cun wide.”

The Eryasays: “To mow[qu斪] or weed[zhu斸] are spoken of as to settle [ding定].”

The Retainer from Jianwei says: “To mow or weed is to hoe [chu鋤]. They are names for settling.”

The Compiled Graphssays: “In the way of tending sprouts, the long-handle hoe [chu鋤] is not as good as the short-handle hoe [nou耨], the short-handle hoe is not as good as shovel [chan鏟]. A shovel is two chi long, with a blade two cun wide, and is used to level the ground and remove grass.”

Xu Shen's Explaining Graphssays: “The plough-shaft [lei耒] is for hand-tilling with a curved wood. The plough-share [si 耜] is the plough-shaft's straight end. The weeder [zhu斸] is for cleaving [zhuo斫]. In Qi they speak of it as the ziji鎡基. Some say the axe handle [jinbing斤柄] is curved by nature. A field [tian 田] is laid out [chen陳]. Where is planted grain is called a field. [The graph] resemble four 口, and the 十 is the pattern of paths and cross-paths. To till [geng耕] is to plough [li犂]. [the graph] comes from “plough-shaft” 耒 with the “well” [jing井] sound. Some say it is the ancients' well field [system.]”

Liu Xi's Analysing Names say: “A field [tian田] is full [tian填]. The five grains fill up within it. A plough [li犂] is profit [li利]. To profit, turn over the soil and cut off the grass at the root. The short-handle hoe [nou耨] resembles hoeing [chu鉏], with crouched back hoe among the stalks. To weed out [zhu] is to execute [zhu誅] someone. The ruler uses execution to dig up a matter at the root.”

[General advise]

In general, when opening uncultivated mountain and marsh fields, always in the 7th Month cut down and mow them. When the grass has dried, set fire to it. Arriving at spring, begin to clear out those of its groves where the wood is large, peel off the bark to kill them. When the leaves are dead and not casting shadow, they will readily yield to tilling and planting. After three years, when the roots have withered and the stalks decayed, use fire to burn them (entering the ground fully), till the uncultivated land to the end, and use an iron teeth loucou𨫒楱 harrow to rake it twice everywhere, hurl broomcorn non-glutinous millet, and bush-harrow [lao勞] it again twice everywhere. Next year then it is fitting to be a millet field.

In general when tilling eminent or inferior fields, do not ask about spring or autumn, [you] must pay attention to dry or wet to obtain what will be good. If flood and drought are not in concert, it is better with dry and not wet {A}. For the spring tilling, immediately take in hand the harrowing{B}. For the autumn tilling, wait for the turn to white to harrow{C}. [When the soil starts to dry, the surface turns white, which Jia Sixie refers to as 白背.]

{A: With dry tilling, then even if there are earth-clods, as soon as there is rain, the earth will pulverize and dissolve. With wet tilling, it will harden when it dries, and for several years will not be good. The proverb which says: “Wet tilling and damp hoeing is not as good as going home.” tells that it is of no gain and will be damaging. In the case of wet tilling, when it turns white quickly use the loucou on it, and there will likewise be no injury. If not done, it will be very bad.} {B: The ancients said you耰, now we say lao勞. The Explaining Graphs says: “The you is a tool for rubbing [mo摩] the fields.” Now people also name the lao bush-harrow a “rubber” [mo]. A vulgar saying is “till the field with the rubbing harrow”.} {C: During spring, there is much wind, and if [you] do not soon harrow, the earth will surely be empty and dry. During autumn the fields are soaked solid, and wet harrowing will make the earth stiff. The proverb which says: “To till and not to harrow is not as good as making it go to waste” perhaps tells that wetlands are difficult to handle, and delights in Heaven's timely chances. Huan Kuan's essay on Salt and Iron says: “Underneath a thick grove there is no lush grass. Between large clods there are no excellent sprouts.”}

In general, autumn tilling want to be deep, spring and summer tilling want to be shallow. Ploughing want to be narrow, harrowing want to be double{D}. In the autumn to till and cover over what is green is the best.{E} The earliest tilling want to be deep, and the turned over earth want to be shallow.{F} On land with themeda or cogon-grass [jianmao菅茅], [you] ought to let loose cattle and sheep to trample it. Then if in the 7th Month [you] till it, it will die{G}.

{D: Plough narrow and till finely, the ox then will not tire. Double-harrow and the land will ripen, during drought it will likewise protect the moisture.} {E: Reaching the winter months, the green grass that has regrown will be as excellent as adzuki beans [xiaodou小豆].} {F: If the tilling is not deep, the land will not ripen. If the turned over is not shallow, the stirring will bring forth the soil.} {G: If not the 7th Month, it will regrow.}

In general, the rule for excellent fields, is for mung beans [lüdou緑豆] to be first, adzuki beans and sesame [huma胡麻] is next to it. Thoroughly for all of them sow densly [?] within the 5th and 6th Months, and in the 7th and 8th Month plough and cover over to kill them. [This] will make a spring millet field with a harvest of ten shi on the mu, in excellence comparable to silkworm excrement and mature manure.

In general, after the autumn harvest, the oxen's strength will be weak. For those not yet caught up for autumn tilling, at the bringing down of [?] the foxtail [ gu穀], glutinous broomcorn [shu黍], non-glutinous broomcorn [ji穄], large grained [liang 粱], and glutinous foxtrail [shu秫]millets' stubble, then move the exhausted ones to quickly use the “spear-point plough” [feng鋒] on it. The ground is regularly soft and moist, and is not hard and tough. Then when arriving at the beginning of winter, [you] usually get to till and harrow, and not worry about it being dried up and arid. If the oxen's strength is small, only harrow it once during the 9th and 10th Months, and arriving at spring, sow without ploughing [?], is also doable.

[Excerpts from the Monthly Orders on tilling]

[This whole subsection consists of quotation from the classic text the Monthly Orders [Yueling 月令], a chapter of the Ritual Records [Liji禮記], accompanied by quotations from commentary by the Eastern Han scholar Zheng Xuan.]

The Ritual Records' Monthly Orderssays: “In the Month of First Spring, … the Son of Heaven therefore on the inaugural day pray for grain to the High God [shangdi上帝]{H}. Then, selecting the inaugural chen day, the Son of Heaven personally conveys the plough-shaft and ploughshare. … He leads the Three Excellencies, the Nine Dignitaries, the various feudal lords, and the great men, to till themselves the God's Acre [Di ji帝籍]{I}. This Month, Heaven's breath descends down and Earth's breath rises up. Heaven and Earth are in harmony with each other, and the grasses and trees sprout and stir{J}. … He instructs the ministers for the fields{K}. They skilfully assess the hills and mounds, the slopes and defiles the highlands and lowlands, for what is suitable among the land and ground, and what to plant of the Five Grains, so as to teach and guide the people. … Field affairs having been put in order, he first settles the guidelines and responsibilities. Agriculture was therefore not in confusion. ...”

{H: Zheng Xuan's Annotations says: “It speaks of the first xin day, and the suburban sacrifices to Heaven. The Spring and Autumn Transmittals says: 'In spring the suburban sacrifices to the Lord of Agriculture [Houji后稷] to pray for farming affairs. Thus after the commencement of hibernation, the suburban sacrifices. After the suburban sacrifices, the tilling.' The High God is the god of the Grand Tenuity [taiyi太微].”} {I: “Inaugural chen is perhaps a propitious chen day after the suburban sacrifices. … The God's Acre is the field by which is regulated the Heavenly Divinity's lending the people strength.”} {J: “This is the yang breath ascending through the surface, a portent that there can be tilling. The Book of Agriculture says: 'For the best growth cover over the stakes. When they show the base and can be pulled out, those who till urgently set out.”} [This Book of Agriculture [nongshu農書] is apparently the same as the Book of Fan Shengzhi which is quoted in more detail on this topic further down.] {K: “With minister it speaks of the 'field surveyors', the officials in charge of agriculture.”}

“In the Month of Middle Spring, … those who till have a short rest, they then repair their gate and door leaves [heshan闔扇]{L}. There are no great affairs undertaken which would hinder agricultural affairs. … ”

{L: 'Rest' [she舍] is similar to 'pause' [shi止]. Hibernating insects open doors, and with tilling affairs a little tranquil, they then put in order their gates and doors. When they use wood it is called he闔, when they use bamboo or reeds it is called shan扇.”}

“In the Month of First Summer, … he encourages agriculture and motivates the people, and there are not anyone who neglects the season{M}. … He instructs the farmers to apply themselves to action, and not rest at the capital{N}. ...”

{M: “He puts weight and effort in encouraging [them?] to come to him.”} {N: “He presses and urges the farmers. … The Rites for the King Residing in the Bright Hall says: 'There are no sojourners in the state'.”

“In the Month of Last Autumn, … The hibernating insects altogether curl up inside, and everyone plaster their doors.{O}”

{O: “With 'plastering' [jin墐] it speaks of smearing plaster [tu塗] to shut them. This is to avoid the killing[?] air.”}

“In the Month of First Winter, … Heaven's breath rises up and Earth's breath descends down. Heaven and Earth do not communicate, they shut up and hide, and achieve winter. … He encourages the farmers to rest and comforts them{P}. …”

{P: “'The Ward Corrector [dangzheng黨正]' 'drinks wine with the people belonging to him, and correctly arrays their ranks.'”} [Zheng Xuan here quotes from the Rites of Zhou]

“In the Month of Middle Winter, … ground affairs are not undertaken, care is taken not to open up what is covered, and not to open rooms and buildings. … [otherwise] the Earth's breath would further spill out, this is spoken of as opening the house of Heaven and Earth. The various hibernating [insects] would then die, and the people would be ill and sick{Q}. …”

{Q: “When the Great Yin employed in affairs, it especially puts weight on closing up and keeping safe.” Note that in the present era's tilling in the 10th and 11th Months is not straightly disobeying the Way of Heaven, and harming hibernating insects. [If] the earth likewise was not made moist, the harvest would surely be meagre and small.} [The words “Note … small” are not part of Zheng Xuan's commentary, but are rather Jia Sixie's own comments.]

“In the Month of Last Winter, … he instructs the field officials to announce people to bring out the Five Seeds{R}. He instructs the farmers to plan their plough-pairs and tilling affairs, repair their plough-shafts and -shares, and prepare their field tools{S}. … This month, the sun has gone through the stations, the moon has gone through the positions, and the stars have cycled around Heaven. The numbering is soon about to end{T}. The year will once more begin. Pay attention to your farming people, and do not have them sent about{U}.”

{R: “He instructs the field officials to announce to the people to bring out the Five Seeds. The great cold has passed by, and farming affairs are about to begin.”} {S: The ploughshare [si耜] is the metal of the plough-shaft [lei耒]. The ploughshare is five cun wide. Field tools are the types of hoes [ziji鎡錤].” {T: “It tells that the sun, moon, and stars have travelled around until this month, when they all have made a circuit to their old locations. The 'stations' [si次] are the lodges [she舍]. The 'positions' [ji紀] are similar to lodges.”} {U: “er而 [“thy”] is similar to ru汝 [“you” or “your”]. It tells to pay attention solely to the hearts of your farming people, and make people prepare their resolve for the affairs of tilling and sowing. It is not possible to conscript them for labour. If conscripted for labour, their resolve will scatter, and they will neglect their profession.”}

[Other quotations on tilling]

Master Meng says: “A gentleman's assignment is like a farmer's tilling.”{V}

{V: Zhao Zhu's annotations says: “It tells that to be hasty in your assignment, like a farmer who does not till, is impossible.”}

Marquis Wen of Wei says: “People in spring put their effort into tilling, in summer use their strength for weeding, and in autumn they gather their harvest.”

The Book of Miscellanea on Yin and Yang says: “When on hai亥 it is in the Heavenly Granary constellation, it is the start of tilling.”

The Spring and Autumn of Mister Lü says: Fifty-seven days after winter solstice, sweet flag [chang昌] grows. Sweet flag is the first to grow of the hundred hundred grasses, and at this point tilling starts.

The Masters of Huainan says: That which does the affairs of tilling is toil, that which does the affairs of weaving is trouble [?]. They are affairs of toil and trouble, yet those people who do not rest know they can be used for clothes and food. A person's feelings are not capable of being without clothes or food. The way of clothes and food surely starts at tilling and weaving. … Those who, if they till and weave, who will start at the beginning with considerable toil, and end with certain profit, are the multitudes.

It also says: “To be unable to till and yet want glutinous broomcorn or large grained millet, to be unable to weave and yet want to sew attires, to have nothing in their affairs and yet seeking their merit, is difficult.”

[Quotations from Fan Shengzhi]

The Book of Fan Shengzhisays: “In general, the root of tilling lies in determined timeliness, harmony with the ground, applying oneself to manure and moisture, and to hoe early and harvest early.”

“At spring when the frost disperse, Earth's breath starts to permeate, and the soil's sole harmony disperse. At the summer solstice, Heaven's breath starts to heat, the yin breath starts to flourish, and the soil again disperse. Ninety days after summer solstice, when day and night are split, Heaven and Earth's breath are in harmony. Using these times to till the fields, one will yield five, which is called fertile bounty, all then are times for work.”

“At spring when the Earth's breath permeates, [you] can till the hard and tough earth with black, lumpy soil, immediately level and rub down its clods to give growth to grass. When the grass grows, again till it. When the sky has a little rain again till and harmonize it. Do not make that which has clods await the season. This spoken of as 'if strong soil, then weaken it'.”

“A spring portent that the Earth's breath has started to permeate: Hammer down wooden stakes, a chi and two cun long, cover over a chi [so that you] see two cun. After the advent of spring [lichun立春], the soil clods will break up, and the top will slide down the stakes. When they show the base, and can be pulled out, after twenty days from this time, the harmonious breath will leave, and promptly the soil will stiffen. With timely tilling, one will yield four; till when the harmonious breath has left and four will not yield one.”

“When the apricots start to flower and flourish, immediately till light soil and weak soil. Wait for the apricot flowers to fall off, and then till again. Till and immediately roll it [lin藺]. When grass grows, and there is rain and moisture, till and heavily roll it. For soil that is particularly light, use cattle and sheep to trample it. Like this the soil will strengthen. This is what spoken of as 'if weak soil, strengthen it'.”

“If at the spring breath is not permeated, soil fully fitting will not protect its moisture, and for the remainder of the year will not be suitable for sowing, and no manure will not dissolve [?]. Take care to not till dry land. Wait for grass to grow, and to arrive the time it can be tilled. When there is rain, promptly till it, The soil will be close with each other, sprouts only will grow, grass and weed will rot, and [you] will always achieve good fields. This way one tilling will yield five. If not done like this, but dry tilled, clods will be tough, sprouts and weed will spring forth from the same hole and will be impossible to hoe into order, and and it will turn around to become failed fields. If in autumn with no rain [you] yet till, it will sever the soil's breath, and soil will be hard and dry. These are called 'arid fields' [latian臘田]. And when you till in severe winter, [you] will leak out the yin breath, the soil will wither and dry out. These are called 'parched fields' [futian 脯田]. Arid fields and parched fields are both wounded fields. If for two years they do not produce sheaves of grain, then rest them for a year.”

“In general wheat [mai麥] uses the 5th Month for tilling. The 6th Month is second for tilling, and in the 7th Month [you] must not till. Carefully rub and level to await the time for sowing seeds. Till in the 5th Month, one will yield three. Till in the 6th Month, one will yield two. If tilled in the 7th Month, five will not yield one.”

“In winter when the rain and snow has stopped, immediately roll it down. Trap the snow in the soil, and do not cause the following wind to fly away with it. If it snows later, roll it down again. Then at the advent of spring, it will protect the moisture, freeze the insects to death, and the coming year will be suitable for sowing.”

“Obtain the harmony of the season and fit to what is suitable for the land, then even if the fields are meagre and bad, the harvest can be 10 shi on a mu.”

[Quotations from Cui Shi]

Cui Shi's Monthly Orders for the Four Peoplesays: “1st Month, Earth's breath rises up. For the best growth cover over the stakes. When they show the base and can be pulled out. Hasten to cultivate fields with strong soil and black lumps. 2nd Month, Yin's frost is entirely moist. It is possible to cultivate excellent fields with slow soil and the small places by the river banks. 3rd Month, when apricot flowers are abundant, it is possible to cultivate fields with sandy, white, and light soils. 5th Month and 6th Month is is possible to cultivate wheat fields.”

Cui Shi's Essay on Governmentsays: “Emperor Wu used Zhao Guo as Chief Commandant of Searching for Millet, to teach the people tilling and planting. In his method there was three ploughshares [li犂] together for one ox, with one person escorting it, putting down seeds, pulling the seed-drill [lou耬], and in everything taking up preparations for it. In a day he sowed 1 qing. Arriving at present Sanfu [the region around Chang'an], they still rely on its advantages. Now in Liaodong when they till and plough, the shafts are four chi long, the rotations interfering with each other. Then they use a pair of oxen, a pair of people to lead them, one person in charge of the tilling, one person to put down seeds, and two people pull the seed-drill; in total they use a pair of oxen and six people, and in one day they only sow twenty-five mu. They are isolated [?] in the extreme like this.{W}”

{W}Note for three ploughshares together for one ox is similar to the present three-footed seed-drill, why the unknown tilling method? Now from Jizhou濟州 and westward they still use the long-shafted plough and the two-legged seed-drill. Long-shaft tilling on level ground is just about possible, but between the mountains and brooks, [the ground] does not permit its use, moreover the rotations are extremely difficult and costly in strength. It is not the equal the flexible ease of Qi people's luxuriant[?] ploughs. The two-legged seed-drill sows dense ridges, and is likewise not as good for hitting the mark as the one-legged seed-drill. [This seems to be Jia Sixie's own comment to Cui Shi's text.]

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