#so teff and ears

[murdermitties]

how about mmm enby stumpytail and/or lesbian cinders? ur art style is so cool & cute, the kitties u draw look like their fur is sooo soft n i love that !!

alts & blanks

#cinders #cinders wc #stumpytail #warrior cats #wc #kats pride cats #nonbinary #lesbian #i will simply assume you meant sols mom cinders?? #cuz like if it was one of the grey thunder cats i am sorry #STUMPYTAIL!! #points at him -> teen #idk why but hes a petulant teen in my mind #he also happens to be yellowfangs nephew #so teff and ears #THIS AND ANOTHER TWO ARE THE ONLY DOUBLES ILL DO

[ripperdoc-is-daddy]

READER IS BLK CODED AFAB

Pro Hero!Bakugou doesn't know what the strange bubbling white tub on top of the fridge is so he tosses it.

You come home and are ready to make some tibs and go for your tub that has your injeera starter in it. And you can't find it.

Katsuki comes over and watches. Takes a few minutes before he asks "The fuck you looking for so hard?"

"Mmmm...I had a tub of my starter up on the fridge but it's gone now and I am confused where the fuck I put it."

Katsuki pales as he remembers the tub he chucked earlier into the outside dumpster.

He slowly exits the kitchen and tries to make his way to the front door. You notice as he has his boots halfway on.

"WHAT. DID. YOU. DO!?" You demand harshly.

He is looking everywhere BUT at you as he explains. Your eyes narrow and you sigh. Grabbing one of his ears you drag him into the kitchen.

You pull out some teff and room temp water. "Get on it. You have three days to baby this and make it up to me."

You motion at the counter, step back and watch as he reads the instructions on the fresh bag of teff. Everytime he goes to speak you cut him off with an "AHHHT! Aht aht!" Till he eventually realizes he can't talk or fuck his way outta this.

You enjoy his misery as you have him make not one bit three starters- just in case. You also livestream it for the Bakusquad while you narrate how he came to be in this position.

He doesn't live this down for several months.

#follow 👑 share ❤️ enjoy 🍑 #mha bakugo x black reader #bakugo x reader #bakugou x reader #mha bakugou #bakugou katsuki x reader #bakugo x black female reader #bakusquad #bakugou x y/n #katsuki bakugō #bakugou katsuki #my hero academia imagines #imagine #katsuki bakugo mha #katsuki bakugou #bakugo katsuki x reader #aave (aave) #aave #bakugo drabble #bnha drabble #mha drabbles #bakugou drabble #bakugou fluff #bakugou imagine #bakugo imagine #katsuki bakugo drabbles #mha fanfiction #bnha fanfiction #bnha fluff #mha fluff

[andrewslover]

two

masterlist

word count: 1.5k

warnings: none

It feels like my ears are ringing. I am so screwed. Out of the corner of my eye, I see Andrew sit down next to me with a smirk on his face. I honestly feel like I could cry. 

“Alright, Teff, I guess we’re working together,” Andrew says, nudging me with his shoulder. The mention of my childhood nickname makes my blood boil.

“Please, don’t call me that. You can just, um, pick the song. I know you hate my music,” I say, not even daring to look at him. I don’t want to get into an argument with him about this.

“Are you sure?” he asks, a bit of skepticism laced in his tone.

“Yeah, it’s whatever. I don’t really feel like fighting with you,” I answer, playing with my hands.

He pauses for a moment, and I can tell that he’s shocked by my response. I know he’s used to me always being ready to argue with him, but at this point, I just don’t care. “Well, I was thinking we could, uh, use that one song you really like. I think it’s called, uh, all too well?”

My ears perk up and I finally meet his brown eyes in a confused gaze. “You want to use a Taylor Swift song for our project?” I ask. He’s always made fun of me for liking her music. Hell, he even made fun of it this morning!

“Uh…yeah. I just thought that it would work well, you know,” he says, rubbing the back of his neck.

A small smile appears on my face. “I mean, I’m not going to complain about using a Taylor Swift song,” I chuckle. “I-I just thought that you didn’t like her music.”

He chuckles. “I mean, it’s not all bad,” he mumbles, fidgeting with his pencil.

I smile, deciding not to pry any further. I open up my phone and pull up the “RED” album. I lean down to get my headphones out of my bag, but Andrew is already offering me his pair. I give him a small smile, reaching for the pair. Our fingertips brush and I swear, my heart skipped a beat. I plug his headphones and we both sit and listen to the song. I watch his reaction out of the corner of my eye, and I can see him mouthing some of the lyrics. Since when does he listen to Taylor Swift?

My heart aches as the song plays. I hate that I relate to this song. But I don’t like to talk about it. Not even Dakota knows the whole story. The final chords of the song play and I take out Andrew’s headphones. I open up a new page in my notebook. I tuck a strand of hair behind my ear, playing with my pen. “So, um, I was thinking that since we’re using that song, our project should kind of follow the timeline of a toxic relationship?” I suggest, ready to be shot down.

“That’s a good idea. But I think it should definitely be from more of a female perspective since the song was written by a woman. Like, obviously the guy did wrong things and there’s no use in justifying his actions since it’s not from his perspective,” Andrew says, thoroughly and utterly shocking me.

“Okay, who are you and what have you done with Andrew Garfield?” I joke, turning to fully look at him.

“What do you mean?” he laughs, putting his hands up, as if to say he’s innocent.

“You have never been this nice to me,” I say, playing with my pen again.

Andrew just shrugs, obviously not wanting to acknowledge that truth. I roll my eyes, turning back to my notebook. We continue to talk about our project, going over costume ideas to plot lines, and simple details. Throughout our conversation, Andrew has yet to make one snide comment about anything. And it’s freaking me out. He’s never been nice to me and now, all of sudden, he is. It doesn’t make any sense.

The bell rings, signaling the end of the day. “I can work on a rough draft of a script tonight and we can go over it tomorrow,” I say, packing up my bag.

“I can just give you my number and you can text me about it later. I'm not letting you do the whole thing by yourself,” he says, grabbing my phone out of my hand. He types quickly, somehow getting into my phone.

“How do you know my passcode?” I ask, my brows furrowed in confusion.

“Your birthday is an easy guess,” he laughs, handing me back my phone. “Talk to you later, Teff,” he winks, heading out the door and leaving me in a perpetual state of confusion.

---

“Wait, wait, wait,” Dakota says, a look of confusion on her face. “You’re telling me, Andrew, the boy who has made your life hell since you’ve known him, was partnered with you for a theatre project and he was nice AND he suggested a Taylor Swift song?”

“I know, it’s fucking insane,” I say, staring at my blonde best friend trying to understand the absolute bullshit that I went through today over FaceTime.

“Are you sure that you didn’t just fall asleep in class and dream all of this?” Dakota asks, a genuine look of concern on her ace.

“Yes, I’m sure. I even have his number in my phone to prove it,” I say. Dakota’s eyes widened. Shit, did I not tell her that?

“YOU HAVE HIS PHONE NUMBER?!” she screams. “Oh my God, your middle school dreams are coming true.”

I let out a loud laugh and shake my head. “It’s only for the project. I’m sure he’ll want me to delete it after,” I say. “Besides, it’s not like he would ever, in a million years, want to date someone like me.”

Dakota pauses for a moment, looking at me as if I have three heads. “Are you saying that you wouldn’t mind dating him?” Dakota says, a sneaking smirk growing on her face.

“No, no, no, absolutely not!” I shout a little too quickly.

“Oh my God, you have a crush again! Fucking finally, I’ve been waiting for you to crawl out of your hole of isolation since freshman year,” she laughs.

I roll my eyes, not wanting to acknowledge her accusations or the mention of my last relationship. I go on to ask her about her day and cheer practice, which immediately gets her talking excitedly about competitions and scholarships and the whole nine yards of it. As Dakota continues to talk about everything going on with the cheer team, my mind begins to wander off. There’s no way I could have a crush on Andrew. No way in hell. Him being nice today was just a weird thing. He wouldn’t even acknowledge the fact that he’s made fun of me all my life, even when I was in my darkest moments. 

I mean, granted, not even Dakota and Josh knew so I can’t really accuse him of intentionally doing it. It’s still weird, though. I’m sure he has a girlfriend anyway, so it doesn’t matter. Every girl in our school wants to get in bed with Andrew Garfield. He’s the star basketball player and extremely attractive. And he’s my brother’s best friend. I feel like that breaks some sort of code, right? 

After I bid Dakota goodnight, my parents call me downstairs for dinner. I’m always the last one at the dinner table, considering Josh is just getting home from basketball practice and my younger sister, Elizabeth, mainly spends her afternoons in her toy room in the basement, making it easier for her to get to the dining room. This is the one time of day where our entire family is together, and we always try to make the most out of it. Mom and Dad sit at opposite ends of the table, while Josh sits by himself and I’m next to Elizabeth.

“So, Andrew told me you guys are working on a project together,” Josh says as he shovels another forkful of Mom’s homemade macaroni and cheese in his mouth.

“Yeah, what about it?” I ask, confused as to why he cares.

“I was just confused why he was so excited about it,” Josh shrugs, continuing to shove food in his mouth.

I look at him, puzzled. Why would Andrew be excited about it? He hates me, right? “I don’t know. Maybe he’s just happy he got put with someone that will get him a good grade for a change?”

“Taylor, that’s not nice,” my mom scolds, causing my dad to chuckle and me to roll my eyes. Our conversation quickly moves on, ranging from how our days were to my dad complaining about new budgets and potential business trips. But I’m still stuck on Josh’s comments. Why would Andrew be happy about our project together?

After dinner, I turn on my current favorite movie, “Doctor Strange”.  I’ve always been a pretty big Marvel fan, which is something else that Andrew has made fun of me for. I stare at my blank document, trying to figure out how to start this script. I continue to stare until I start typing aimlessly. I space out, letting the words flow. I’m quickly pulled out of my thoughts by my phone going off. 

New message from: Andrew

how’s that script coming along, teff?

Oh my God.

#andrew garfield #andrew garfield x oc #andrew garfield fanfic

[entirebodyexercise]

96 ways to keep your heart healthy and strong

1. Substitute puréed prunes or applesauce for butter in cooking recipes.

2. Workout! Study shows top aerobic athletes often tend to live 5 years longer.

3. Decrease your salt intake by replacing canned veggies with frozen.

4. See the glass as half full. Positivity is related to a more powerful heart.

5. Pick potassium! This mineral helps cancel sodium levels (a major wrongdoer in destructive our hearts).

6. Take pleasure in a square of 70 percent dark delicious chocolate. It has potent antioxidant as well as anti-clotting properties.

7. Do you recognize the signs and symptoms of high blood pressure? Trick concern: There aren't any! Have a pharmacologist or doctor check yours this week.

8. Replace your workdesk chair with a medicine ball. It's a terrific means to shed additional calories and also raise core strength.

9. What inspires you to stay healthy and balanced? Compose the factors on sticky notes as well as publish them at the workplace as well as at residence to remind and influence you.

10. Learn how to say no. Claiming yes to every little thing can result in anxiety as well as poor health.

11. Experiment with whole grains: Attempt hulled barley, teff, millet, buckwheat, quinoa as well as wheat bulgur or berries.

12. Go nuts! Studies discover a handful five times per week assists lower heart problem risk.

13. Maintain your cool. When your temper increases, your high blood pressure could also increase.

14. Serve lentils, beans or tofu as the primary rather than meat. With a little seasoning they really shine!

15. Grab a pedometer. Try including 100 steps to your overall every week.

16. Avoid sugarcoated. Flavour your coffee or tea with cinnamon instead.

17. Devote to health and fitness: Stroll any distance that's 10 mins away or less.

18. Supply your fridge with low-fat or skim milk products.

19. Lease a romcom. Science web links watching funny flicks with advantageous blood flow throughout your body.

20. Do exactly what you enjoy. A solid heart is emotionally and also literally fit.

21. Inning accordance with leading heart docs, workout is like sleep: you can't save it up. Rise, obtain going!

22. Stretch it out! Versatile muscle mass imply adaptable arteries.

23. LOL ASAP: Giggling actually is the finest medicine. It relieves anxiety as well as improves your immune system.

24. Start a brand-new practice this Thanksgiving. Make time for a stroll with buddies and also household to take pleasure in the colours of fall.

25. Eat out! Search for vital words like baked, broiled, grilled, poached or steamed on the menu.

26. Lift weights: For every single extra pound of muscular tissue you develop, you'll melt an added 10 calories each day.

27. Brighten a cool morning. Make a low-cal London Fog with Earl Grey tea, vanilla essence as well as steamed low-fat milk.

28. Huge up on B vitamins-- they increase good cholesterol by 15 to 35 percent.

29. Do a stress inventory. Take 5 mins to see where you hold stress and anxiety: jaws, shoulders, neck. Now breathe, stretch, relax!

30. Schedule much more suppers in. Households that dine with each other make much healthier selections together.

31. Allow go of stress and also perfectionism. Loosen up, as well as care for yourself.

32. Ditch that soft drink. A pop a day can add up to 15 extra pounds in a year!

33. Offer a dish of low-sodium, broth-based soup.

34. Treat on raw vegetables rather than chips when you're craving a little crunch.

35. Usage smaller sized bowls and layers in the house. Portion control secures your heart.

36. Moms-to-be that do low-impact workout provide babies a head start on heart health.

37. Stressed? Get a pen. Discussing difficult events could help you release negative feelings and feel better.

38. Create a hassle-free bedroom. Lower the thermostat as well as try ear plugs as well as light-blocking curtains.

39. Test new heart-healthy oils, like soybean, safflower and sesame.

40. Attempt an anytime, anywhere fitness break. Stash stretchbands as well as skipping ropes in your purse.

41. Today, have a cozy movie night. Serve low-fat cocoa as well as air-popped snacks seasoned with Cajun spices.

42. Feeling emphasized? Talk it out with a buddy. It'll make you feel much better as well as maintain harmful stress and anxiety degrees down!

43. Neglect frying! Try steaming, broiling, or cooking your food for healthier dishes, as a first program. It loads you up without adding mega calories!

44. Throw some chia seeds on your salad for a hit of heart-healthy fiber as well as omega-3s.

45. Set up an once a week exercise date with a close friend. Studies reveal you'll lose more weight together!

46. Easy on the salt! Go for no even more than 2,300 mg a day (that's one teaspoon).

47. Inflate the volume! Hearing songs releases feel-good hormones.

48. Release anger: Hanging on to aggravation injures your heart. Repetitive rounds can thicken artery walls.

49. Smile! When you beam on the outdoors, you beam on the inside also. Research links joy with solid hearts.

50. Change screen time with face time. Limit TV to 2 hours a day.

51. Reach out to friends and family. Interacting socially is fantastic for your heart!

52. Schedule leisure right into your week. Try tai chi, yoga exercise, reflection or a quiet stroll in the park.

53. Appreciate Loss's bounty: Get some fennel, okra, beans, corn, shallots and also late summertime squash on your plate.

54. To earn waiting less stressful, maintain Sodoku problems, weaving or a book in your bag.

55. Suppress cravings with healthy and balanced snacks: Low-fat cheese as well as grapes or celery, or a handful of nuts and a pear.

56. Leave the cars and truck in the house! Try strolling, biking, or public transportation to obtain where you have to go.

57. Window-shopping is good for you! When it's unpleasant outside, hit the shopping centers for Thirty Minutes of quick walking.

58. Even if it's margarine, doesn't imply it's heart-healthy. Examine the label: It must be non-hydrogenated as well as trans fat free.

59. Relocate your feet with motivation: Authorize up for an enjoyable run or a charity stroll for a good cause.

60. Can not state no to a friend? Pledge your BFF you'll obtain energetic with her - you'll be more probable to go!

61. Discover your city with a led walking tour, or take a mid-day to check out a new neighbourhood on foot.

62. Obtain examined! Half of females have high cholesterol.

63. Stress less regarding the future. Excess stress and anxiety might emphasize your heart.

64. State many thanks! Revealing gratitude reduces stress, which could help take added stress off your heart.

65. Replacement lean turkey for ground beef. It has less saturated fat.

66. Include more colour to your plate. You can boost heart wellness immediately by upping your fruit and veg intake.

67. Envision a much healthier you. It's the primary step towards making long-term changes.

68. Measure your blood pressure at the drug store. Fifty percent of people who have high blood stress do not know it.

69. Purée additional vegetables into sauces as well as soups for a sneaky health boost!

70. Adhere to low GI foods. They may trigger fewer spikes in blood sugar, which indicates much less strain on your heart.

71. Eat whole fruits, rather of alcohol consumption fruit juices, to get insoluble fibre.

72. Make it a practice when dining in a restaurant: constantly take home a dog bag.

73. Put on your own initially. Stay smoke-free, consume right and workout, these are some way of living changes that could reduce the danger of heart problem as well as stroke by up to 80 percent.

74. Relax. It's good for your heart and also soul.

75. Explore a brand-new Indian dahl recipe. Legumes never ever tasted so good!

76. Healthy sex lives create healthy hearts. An attractive session could be as good for your heart as a vigorous walk.

77. Try tabbouleh! It's a great means to obtain in even more yummy whole grains.

78. Experience new spreads: Attempt peanut, hazelnut or almond butter on bread.

79. Join a community yard in your area. Gardening minimizes stress and anxiety and also can shed 400 calories each hour!

80. Stopped cigarette smoking-- no butts about it! Smokers are three times most likely to pass away of heart disease.

81. Absorb the sunlight! A great dose of vitamin D keeps heart cells healthy.

82. Put sleep initial (go for a minimum of 7 hrs). Pleasant dreams produce satisfied hearts.

83. Brush and also floss! They do even more than freshen your breath. Great oral health and wellness could minimize cardiac arrest risk.

84. Inspect nourishment labels: If sugar is the initial or 2nd component, simply say no! It's not a healthy choice.

85. Work in workout whenever you can. At the workplace, squat till you're almost remaining on your chair. Do 15 reps. Easy!

86. Reside in a heart-healthy 'hood. Supermarket and also parks within strolling range encourage casual exercise.

87. Fret less concerning the future. Excess anxiety could worry your heart.

88. Ordinary popcorn is a heart-healthy snack!

89. Bear in mind every bite. Reduce down and also indulge in the flavour.

90. Ditch deep-fried foods as well as business baked products. They seriously increase the danger for heart disease!

91. Excel to your heart currently. The seeds of disease are planted early. Stop them prior to they take root.

92. Usage healthy fats like cold-pressed, extra-virgin olive oil on your salad.

93. Start roughing it! Fibre-rich foods are one of the finest methods to assist prevent heart disease.

94. Construct a far better brekkie. Oatmeal is a heart-healthy start (reward factors for sprinkling flax seeds ahead).

95. Make time for hugs. A limited capture could help reduce your high blood pressure and lower stress.

96. Play a sport you like! A fit heart is a delighted heart.

#aerobic #cardio workout #exercise #fitness #health #health and fitness #health and wellness #weight #wellness #workout

[violetsmoak]

Appetence [1/?]

AO3 Link:https://archiveofourown.org/works/20251420/chapters/47997634

Blanket Disclaimer

Summary: Red Robin is investigating the disappearance of a friend and stumbles into a spot of supernatural trouble. He doesn't expect to be saved by Jason Todd, miraculously alive five years after his death and now with the inexplicable ability to commune with the dead. Meanwhile, when Jason returned to Gotham he meant to maintain a low profile and not get involved with Bat business. That was before he found out how hot his Replacement is.

Rating: PG-13 (rating may change later)

JayTimBingo Prompts This Chapter: #cemetery #haunting #relics

Canon-Compliance: Alternate Universe; Jason still died but was not found by Talia when he was resurrected. All other events mostly follow the same chronology as New Earth continuity, with mentions made to events in New 52

Author’s Note(s): My attention span was really terrible today and I couldn't focus on either of my two other fics even though the next chapters of both are completely planned out. So I'm posting the start of the third (and final) story that I'm doing for the JayTimWeek/Month challenge. Also, I'm really excited about this one. I spent more time planning this than either of the other two and I can't wait to hear what you guys think!I've got work stuff to do tomorrow so there may not be anything updated until Friday.

Beta Reader: I’ll get back to you on that.

________________________________________________________________

The Bat-Signal cuts through the dark and hazy clouds lingering above Gotham City, and for a split-second, Jason Todd has the urge to drop everything and race for the roof of the GCPD Headquarters. It’s hard to ignore the nervous jump of excitement in his stomach, the phantom sensation of a domino mask on his face and the heavy drag of a cape at his shoulders.

Which makes no sense, since it’s been at least five years since I even wore that shit.

Taking a drag of his cigarette, the smoke mixing with the familiar summer smog, Jason turns his back on Gotham’s literal beacon of hope and steels himself against nocturnal threats of his own. The city is for the caped crew—because apparently, the Bat has a posse now, he thinks with only a hint of a bitter sneer—and Jason has been fighting in a different arena for quite some time now.

He takes a final drag of the cigarette, and then grinds it beneath his boots, and shoves his hands in the pockets of his leather jacket. It’s a weathered and worn thing that reminds him of one Willis Todd wore in one of the few memories Jason has of him that doesn’t involve alcohol or fists. He thinks it’s less pretentious looking than a trench coat and probably gives off fewer ‘creepy motherfucker’ vibes like the sartorial choices of certain other people. It’s also less likely to snag on things when he needs to make a quick exit while digging up graves.

Yeah, it’s a thing in his line of work.

Gotham Cemetery is a sprawling necropolis, as dark and forbidding now as it was the night he dug himself out of his own grave. Half a decade of Gotham-style tender, loving negligence has left the somber green hills overgrown and the majority of the old tombstones fallen or rotting.

You’d think in a city with the highest homicide rate in the country, the mayor would spring for better maintenance. Then again, it’s Gotham. The dead don’t pay taxes, so fuck ‘em.

Which…enough said.

Gotham and the world think Jason Todd-Wayne is dead and has been for five years now; in a way, it’s the truth. He’s no longer anything like the boy that was beaten to death by a psychotic clown, no longer the shrimp who fastidiously dyed his hair black and jumped into someone else’s cape and pixie boots just so he didn’t have to be his own screwup self anymore. He outgrew wanting to be Dick a long time ago, outgrew wanting to be Bruce, too, and embraced a whole new other set of skills to put him apart from them.

Most occultists and even homo magi need to put conscious effort and intent into calling up or even seeing a spirit. Ever since Jason died and then mysteriously got better, the dead appear to him as blatantly and a solid as the living.

John told him he was a fool to come back here.

“Someone with your gifts, they’ll drive you bloody mad,” his mentor warned him when he left London. “And I ain’t talking about the dead ones, neither.”

“You’re just saying that because Batman wouldn’t hold your hand that one time,” Jason retorted, shrugging off the concern. He is Gotham born and bred, his blood is in those streets, and he has always wanted to come home, even if it wasn’t necessarily to a stately manor or its inhabitants.

He clenches his fists.

Inhabitants that wasted no time in replacing him after he died. Jason was rotting away in fucking Arkham, and Bruce was shoving another kid into the tights.

If it didn’t involve seeing him, I would hunt him down and break his jaw.

He surveys the graveyard proper. The everyday observer considers cemeteries to be places of peace and eternal rest; quiet, if a little bit spooky. To Jason, they’re as gruesome as any major battlefield.

Spirits pack the way before him; some of them look relatively normal if dated by their clothes; many others are disfigured and bloody from whatever killed them, whether natural or unnatural. They clamor and crowd, eternally shouting to be heard, or screaming as they relive their deaths in their own personal purgatories.

In the beginning, that din almost drove Jason insane. Bruce’s teachings kept him rational as long as it could in the months after he woke up, and then John’s training helped him temper his own awareness further. By now, he can function almost normally, automatically filtering the voices out as he goes about his daily business; it’s only in places like this, where the dead outnumber the living, where it’s harder.

Jason reaches up, adjusting the noise filters in his ears—mechanical devices that need regular winding but are still more reliable than anything running on electricity of batteries. They’re like steampunk hearing aids, only instead of magnifying sound, they drown out the constant moan of the ghosts when he can’t do it himself. Just one of many methods of protection he’s learned over the years. Some are physical, like the prayer beads wrapped around his wrist or the bottle of holy water in his pocket; others—spells and symbols and mantras—are carved all over his body in tattoos and blood writing. Anything to keep the otherworld away.

“Personal space is a key to a medium’s sanity,” John told him once. “That and a good bottle of single malt scotch.”  

Jason ignores the moss-covered path that winds through the larger and more prominent mausoleums. He deliberately doesn’t search out the one in the distance bearing the Wayne crest—

(Still remembers the feel of his fingernails splitting against the wood of the coffin, choking on clumps of soil and insects.)

—and instead seeks a small structure much farther away. It’s in the furthest part of the cemetery, the shabby section almost hidden by overgrown willows. Half of the name above the doorway is obscured by vines, but it’s easy for him to make out the name etched into the stone with bold letters.

HAYWOOD.

According to the public record, Sheila Haywood’s body was returned to Gotham at the same time as Jason Todd’s. Bruce paid for her funeral and internment, which was just as well since she had no other family, and then she was promptly forgotten about.

By everyone except Jason, it seems.

It took some doing and a few weeks tracking down everyone that had worked at the same refugee camp as his mother, but he’d finally managed to collect what possessions she left behind. A colleague of hers had put them aside when there appeared to be nothing of actual monetary value in them.

A gold coin, small bone carvings of stylized animals, dainty trinkets of garnets, amber and lapis lazuli, a compact mirror, some seashells, a decorative fan, quartz paperweight, and a brightly colored feather. There was a picture of Willis in there, too, young and almost Jason’s double. No picture of Jason, though, but he hadn’t expected it.

He kept the picture but left the rest in the small wooden box, which he now removes from his messenger bag and sets down in front of the stone bearing his mother’s name. He follows that with various tools and ingredients. Black candles arranged in a star shape around the box, a chalice, a jar of detritus—teff seeds, driftwood and soil, all from the place where she died—that he sprinkles around in a circle, a handful of smooth obsidian stones to mark a pentagram joining the candles, the dagger John gave him for his last birthday, vials of oil and holy water.

Murmuring a few protection oaths, he shrugs off his jacket, leaving his arms bare, and then digs out a pack of matches to light the candles; flickering shadows dance across the mausoleum walls. He takes up the chalice to combine the water and oil, and then reaches for the dagger.

Hate this part.

Training to ignore pain doesn’t mean it goes away, and he grits his teeth a little as he draws his blade across his forearm, not deep enough to nick anything vital, but enough that the blood runs easily into the chalice. Without bothering to bandage the wound, Jason holds up the chalice in front of him and centers himself.

“Phantasma inrequietum, te voco,” he intones. “Eloguiorum mei audi: Sheila Haywood, te nominas!“ The stagnant air in the mausoleum starts to pick up. “In nominee creatricis, te impero, hic locum decede.” Hand over the top of the chalice, he swirls the liquid within, and then tips it into the open keepsake box. “Per sanguinem hominis et per sanguinem filii tui, non remane et apage! ”He strikes a match and lobs it into the box, not even flinching as the whole thing flares into flame; he intends to watch it until it burns to nothing.

“That’s not going to work, you know.”

“Jesus fuck!” Jason explodes, whirling to the right and glaring at the interrupter. “What did I say about sneaking up on me? Or just—showing up around me in general?”

The apparition in front of him doesn’t look impressed.

Sheila is still beautiful—or, at least, the side of her body that isn’t covered with third-degree burns and sections of pulverized bone—and still sharp. Cold, untouchable and self-interested.

But unlike the way she was before, she’s all-too present in Jason’s life now.

“Goddamn it,” he snarls, and against every lesson John has ever given him, lashes out and knocks the candles and detritus hard enough to send it skidding across the floor. “What the hell. I’ve done everything. You had last rites, your body was cremated, I just torched the things that had any value to you, why the hell won’t you just move on?”

“You’re asking the wrong questions,” Sheila replies, as always.

Jason scowls. “And of course, you can’t just tell me.”

She gazes at him balefully, and he runs a frustrated hand through his hair.

“Sheila, we’ve been over this. You can’t stay here. One, you know spirits that stick around past their time go Dark Side, and I really don’t want to have to exorcise your spectral ass. Two, it’s fucking creepy for a twenty-year-old guy to be followed around by his mother wherever he goes. What the hell is keeping you here? What more do you want from me?”

“Your forgiveness,” she tells him patiently.

“I already forgave you. Years ago.”

“You still call me Sheila.”

“That’s your name.”

“I’m your mother.”

“Who sold me out and got me murdered.”

“See? You haven’t forgiven me.”

“I have. I’m just stating a fact, Jesus…”

“Apparently the cosmic balance doesn’t agree enough to let me move on,” the ghost says dryly. “And to think, I used to be an atheist.”

“This is total bullshit,” Jason snaps, grabbing his jacket and stalking out of the mausoleum in frustration.

Three years of this mediumship crap, and neither he nor John have ever been able to figure out why the ghost of Jason’s dead mother won’t stop haunting him. Wards and sutras that keep even the nastiest spirits away from Jason don’t even phase her, and she’s inexplicably coherent.

And persistent.

As Jason stalks back through the cemetery, he can sense her in his periphery, gliding along beside him, unconcerned with his irritation.

“Can you just…stay away from me? Like you did in the beginning?” he grumbles.

“You were just learning how to communicate without going insane. I wasn’t about to disrupt that.”

“How considerate of you.”

“I try.”

“Look, I’ve had enough of the ghost-stalker thing for today. I went out of my way for this, you know. I didn’t even want to come back here. And now I’m back to the fucking drawing board.”

“It may not have been a waste of a trip,” she replies and vanishes.

“Oh, you can fuck off when it’s convenient for you,” he grumbles, though he already senses what she was speaking of.

Several yards away, a small boy, maybe eight, is clinging forlornly to an angel headstone. Translucent tears stream down his cheeks, but every now and again his face shifts, like a television caught between two channels, and his mouth widens into an unnatural smile.

Jason could have gone the rest of his life without seeing that smile again.

Still, he sighs and heads toward the kid.

“Hey,” he says, keeping his voice low and maintaining a safe distance from the boy, whose head whips up to stare at Jason in sudden fear.

“Who are you?” he asks, voice thick with tears.

“I’m Jason. You okay, kid?”

“I can’t find my mom,” the boy murmurs, wiping at his face. “I keep going looking, but I forget the way home. And then…I always end up back here.”

He sounds on the verge of tears again; it’s something Jason can understand.

With the puzzling exception of Sheila, who appears to come and go as she pleases, most ghosts are stuck in certain patterns and paths when they die, frozen in an infinite loop until they break themselves out of it or until some arbitrary higher power decides they’ve suffered enough. And for some reason, Jason can break them out of it.

“You could always try again,” he suggests. “I think you’ll manage it this time.”

The boy shudders. “There’s scary people here.”

No arguing with that.

“I know. I see them, too.” Jason glances at the headstone, scanning the name and dates. “Your name’s Cole?”

“Yeah.”

“If you’re missing, there are probably people looking for you. They might have posted something online about it. I’ll check it out, but it could take a bit.” He holds up his phone, glad to see it’s at full charge and bars; that’s hit or miss around so many ghosts. “Can you hang around here until I’m done?”

The boy nods, silent, face flicking back and forth between sadness and the unnatural smile.

Fucking Joker…

Jason does a quick search of the kid’s name, pulling up obituaries in the Gotham Gazette in the past year. It doesn’t take long for an article to pop up concerning the Joker’s latest escape and a list of the dead.

He narrows his eyes, startling the kid.

“It’s fine,” he lies. “The internet is just really slow.”

“Or our phone is really bad,” Cole tells him with the blunt honesty of a kid that grew up constantly surrounded by functional technology.

“Everyone’s a critic…”

Another quick search for the parents, phone lists and social media, and he’s got an address. Crime Alley, of course. He brings it up on his map and enables a view of the street, holding the phone out to the boy. “Is this your house?”

Relief settles and settles over his face. “Yeah.”

“What if I helped you find your way home?”

Cole makes a suspicious face. “I’m not supposed to go anywhere with strangers.”

“Which is really smart. But you see, I’m not really a stranger.”

“Oh yeah? Why not?”

“Well, I’ll let you in on a secret.” Jason bends down, conspiratorial, and Cole’s eyes gleam the way any kid gets when hearing a secret. “When I was a little older than you…I was Robin.”

The boy gapes. “Like…Batman and Robin?”

“Exactly.”

“No way!”

“Way,” Jason smirks, crossing his arms. “And I’ll tell you all about it on the way to your house. Including the time that I stole the wheels off the Batmobile.”

“No way!”

Despite his scandalized disbelief, the kid is obviously hooked.

Jason’s heart clenches a bit at the open curiosity on Cole’s face, the reality hitting him that this boy will never have a chance to do anything mischievous or fun ever again.

From one dead boy to another, this sucks…

As he leads him out of the cemetery, Jason starts to tell the little ghost about his life. He edits out the less pleasant bits, like dying and returning to life half brain dead with the ability to see and hear ghosts.

He figures a good story is the least he can do for the boy.

⁂⁂⁂

Next Chapter

#jaytimweek2019 #jaytimweek #jaytim #jaytimbingo2019 #fanfic #jaytim fic #jason todd #tim drake #prompt: supernatural #romance #drama #mystery #angst #cemetery #haunting #relics

[stillsearchingforsomething]

I knew you were trouble

“Good morning,” Taylor says cheerfully when Austin pads into the kitchen of his sister's brand new New York apartment, still looking half asleep.

He yawns and runs a hand through his hair as he smiles quickly at Taylor, and Taylor can’t help but laugh at how his attempts to tame his hair have only made it worse, locks of hair sticking up in every direction.

“Morning,” he mumbles, voice still thick with sleep.

“You’re up early,” Taylor comments as Austin slides onto one of the high stools to sit at the breakfast bar, propping his head up with his hand. “Did you sleep okay?”

He nods with a small smile.

“Do you want something to drink? Juice, lemonade, water?” Taylor asks as she pulls a variety of fresh fruit from the fridge and places them on the counter net to a cutting board.

“Water, please,” Austin says around a yawn, head snapping up when he hears someone descending the stairs. “Who else is here?”

“Karlie,” Taylor says, dropping a glass of water in front of him, holding onto the pitcher of water as she watches Austin down the whole glass in one go, refilling the glass before returning the pitcher back to the fridge.

“She wasn’t here last night,” Austin comments lightly.

“She had to work late,” Taylor explains as she begins cutting up the fruit she has laid out and adding the pieces to two bowls.

“Morning,” Karlie says, walking into the kitchen and shooting Austin a smile but bypassing Taylor to make a beeline for the coffee machine, pouring coffee into the mug that’s already there waiting for her and taking a sip, sighing.

“Good morning,” both Austin and Taylor says so Karlie turns to them, steps close to stand behind Taylor and wrap an arm around the brunette’s waist, careful to keep her hot coffee away from Taylor's skin.

Taylor melts into her, shifts back and Karlie presses her lips to Taylor's shoulder in a lingering kiss and Taylor's eyes slide closed as a content smile makes its way onto her face.

“What did you guys get up to last night?” Karlie asks softly, looking between Taylor and Austin curiously.

“We watched The Conjuring,” Austin says, lighting up excitedly and Taylor can’t help but smile.

“I thought you hated horror movies,” Karlie whispers into Taylor's ear, fingers tapping lightly at her hip.

“He loves them,” Taylor whispers back, turning her head to see Karlie's endeared look.

“What time do we need to leave for the airport at?” Karlie asks louder and Taylor glances at the digital clock on the oven.

“We need to leave in an hour,” she says and Austin nods, downs the rest of his water as he slides off his chair to go get ready.

They both watch as Austin disappears up the stairs before Taylor turns in Karlie's embrace, carefully plucking Karlie's coffee cup from her hand and setting it down on the counter behind her to then slide her arms around Karlie as Karlie sighs softly and leans in, hands sliding up Taylor's arms and looping around her neck.

“Sleep well?” Taylor asks and Karlie nods. “What time did you get in?”

“Three,” Karlie admits softly and Taylor's eyes go wide, hand stroking Karlie's back soothingly.

“That’s so late,” she says and Karlie shoots her a wry smile.

“The shoot ran over and then we got stuck discussing contracts,” Karlie says with an exasperated sigh so Taylor just tightens her arms around the brunette, one of her hands sliding under Karlie's shirt to splay her fingers against the soft skin there.

The first time Taylor had tentatively broached the possibility of Karlie coming with her to Nashville to celebrate her mother's birthday, she had been worried that it was maybe too much too soon. That coupled with the fact that Karlie was super busy preparing for the Spring fashion weeks had meant that Taylor was fully prepared for Karlie to tell her that she couldn't come. Instead Karlie had smiled at her and asked her if she was sure and that if Taylor wanted her there, then there was no where else she would rather be.  

“You come out on top?” Taylor asks teasingly and Karlie smiles.

“Always,” she says, but then she has to duck her head to yawn softly.

“That’s my girl,” Taylor says with a laugh.

“Mmmh,” Karlie chuckles, lifting her head to meet Taylor's eyes.

“Good morning,” Taylor whispers as she pulls Karlie in even closer and brushes her lips against Karlie's.

Karlie smiles as Taylor presses her lips harder against Karlie's, kisses her languidly and Karlie softly sighs into the kiss as Taylor sweeps her tongue across Karlie's lower lip.

They’re just pulling away, Karlie's fingers playing with the short hairs at the nape of Taylor's neck when they hear the telltale sounds of footsteps descending the stairs.

“Oh, sorry,” Austin says quickly when he catches the two embracing and he's already turning away when Taylor calls him back with an amused smile and Karlie doesn’t even have to hide her smile because Austin's looking everywhere but at them, bumps into one of the high chairs as he moves closer.

“I’m gonna go start getting ready,” Karlie says still smiling into her mug of coffee.

“I’ll be up in a bit,” Taylor says, smiling when Karlie leans in for a quick, lingering kiss before grabbing her bowl of fruit and walking away.

“I didn’t mean to chase her away, I just forgot my phone” Austin says, worriedly looking over his shoulder at Karlie's retreating figure.

“You didn’t,” Taylor says, easily dismissing Austin's concern. “We were already done making out,” she adds with a smile as she watches Karlie's shoulders shake with laughter as she heads back upstairs.  

“Oh geez,” Austin says with his nose crinkled in distaste and Taylor laughs loudly.

Austin studies Taylor's face and realises that it's been quite some time since he has seen his sister this happy.

"I haven't even had coffee yet," Austin whines as he steals a piece of pineapple from Taylor's bowl.

"What can I say Austin, my girlfriend is hot," Taylor fires back before popping a strawberry in her mouth.

"Taylor please stop talking."

Two hours later, all three of them are settled on Taylor's private jet on their way to Nashville to celebrate Andrea's birthday. Taylor is busy scrolling through work emails, Austin is watching a movie and Karlie is napping against Taylor's shoulder.

Austin looks up from the closing credits of his movie to find Taylor staring pensively out of the window.

"What are you thinking so hard about Teff?" he asks pulling his headphones out of his ears.

Taylor shrugs and shakes her head before glancing down at Karlie who has managed to burrow even closer into Taylor's side which draws a small smile from the blonde.

"You don't think we're moving too fast?" Taylor asks as she runs her fingers through Karlie's hair, pausing to scratch lightly at the base of her neck.

"Do you think you're moving too fast?" Austin asks raising a questioning eyebrow at his sister.

Taylor rolls her eyes at him. "I like her Austin, I really like her, and that terrifies me," she says in a small voice glancing back down at Karlie who lets out a sleepy sigh.

Austin leans forward in his seat and dips his head to catch Taylor's eyes.

"You've never been afraid of putting yourself out there and from what I've seen over these past couple of weeks, then you're already in trouble Teff," he says sincerely.

Taylor lets out a small laugh as she leans back against her headrest and she can't fight the small smile that breaks out across her face.

"You're right, I'm in so much trouble," she mumbles as she presses a gentle kiss against Karlie's forehead.

#kaylor #kaylor fic #writing words is hard #taylor and karlie

[gayspacerockblog]

The Message

Snippet from Burying Dragons. First thing I did after work today. I’d like to especially thank @sparksandstarsandstories for the advice [see bold line in passage] that prompted this writing spree. Also, to @falling--in--place , I actually hit 704 words! Thanks for the words of advice and encouragement. Taking a break to feed myself and the fiancé, but I’ll be back at the keyboard soon, button-smashing my way to feeling productive. Some brief explanation to help the reader: Nym and Nykoli are phinks, small goblin-like creatures with no discernible gender. Nym is mute and was raised by Varen, later finding a life-partner in Nykoli who taught Nym to write. Nym’s soft-hearted, trusting nature is in contrast to Nykoli’s snarky skepticism. I love these small characters and wanted to find ways to give them more presence in the story.  Feedback welcome! From beneath her pillow, Teff heard a sharp tapping against her window. It startled her out of the dead silence that had been fueling her anxious mind. She willed herself out of bed and crossed the room, drawing the curtains aside to reveal the stark black silhouette of a large raven. She brightened with familiarity and quickly unlatched the double window. 

Varen flew inside, perching on the top of the vanity that backed her writing desk. Her reigns went slack against the mirror, small leather threads hanging like nooses. Nym smiled sadly at Teff before digging into Varen's saddle bag and pulling out a notepad as large as the phink's torso. Nykoli nodded and took the notepad, sliding down the side of the vanity and approaching the edge of the desk where Teff stood with withering patience, desperate for news of Sky.  

“Where did they take her?” She burst. The pain of the answer she already knew was a lump in her throat. Nykoli gave no answer and set the notebook down. “We know where she is as well as you. It's dangerous for us there; we can do no more than deliver a message. I wouldn't even do that if my tender-hearted companion here wasn't so insistent on getting involved. The rest is your problem.” 

The weight of responsibility left Teff weak. She pulled the chair out and let gravity seat her. Nykoli walked up to the inkwell and removed the lid with some effort. Returning to the notebook and removing a single page, Teff felt grateful for the smallest gestures of the phinks and the compassion that could fit into something so small when her own towering mother showed none. Nykoli put her attention to the piece of paper, holding it up for her to take. “We can get this paper to her. All we can do is fly close enough to deliver it, so make your message count. No room in our carrier for useless dribble.” She held it with shaking hands, trying hard not to damage the fragile parchment no bigger than a matchbook. She had so many things she longed to say; words left unspoken, words that had been choked and stolen by Sky's sudden departure. She wanted to say that she loved her, but Sky would already know that. She wanted to say how sorry she was, how much fault she held, how powerless she had been to stop any of this from happening. She wanted to write a novel describing what Sky meant to her, what she would do to get her back. She held her quill, twisting it between her fingers, trying to warm the ink to her thoughts and hoping the right words would spill forth from the keen nib.   Nykoli walked across her desk and laid a bean-sized palm on the back of her hand. “Just tell her everything will be okay.” Offering a forced smile, Nykoli left her to find the words. Teff's fidgeting finally calmed. She took a breath and dipped her quill. She only wrote five words.  They stained the paper with a promise she wasn't sure she could keep, words that would give them both hope. Don't be afraid. I'm coming. Her brow furrowed as she read her message again, fighting back frustration and tears. It would have to do.

Nykoli glanced at the note and gave a satisfied nod, tucking it back into the notebook and looking up to where Varen and Nym had been watching intently. “How about a hand, yeah?”    Teff smiled politely at the phink's abrupt end to formalities and gave an outstretched palm, allowing Nykoli to walk on of his own accord and returning her friend to Varen's saddle. She caught Nym's watery gaze and felt an added guilt for the danger they were facing in this venture. “You don't have to do this, Nym.” The phink smirked, closed eyes pushing back tears. Nym's head shook, swaying large ears back and forth with a disregard for Teff's objection. She tried her best not to cry, but it did no good. She brushed the top of Varen's head affectionately and let them fly off without another word spoken or unspoken.

#writeblr #write #wip #aspiring author #creative writing #fantasy writing #character development #oc share

[annieboltonworld]

Juniper Publishers-Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Forage Production Potential of Maize Cowpea Intercropping In Maichew-Southern Tigray, Ethiopia

Authored by Abraha Negash

Abstract

Needless to mention the ever increasing pressure on cultivated land for food & commercial crops, diminishing the area for forage production. RCBD five treatments with three replications experiment compared maize grown as sole crop with maize-cowpea intercropped to assess agronomic, nutritional and economic returns of forage production. Average plant performance ranged 122.85-174.19cm maize plant height; 20.7-26.4cm ear length, & number of leaves/maize plant was 9.13-10.52. The effect of intercropping treatments on maize forage yield was significant (P<0.05), however, there was no significant difference in grain yield among the cropping systems though T5 yielded higher and higher 100 maize grains weight followed by T4 yield and 21.74g average 100 maize grain weight; T3 (3.05ton/ha) and 21.84g average 100 maize seeds and the least in yield was actually the sole maize T2 (2.24ton/ha), confirming that intercropping has at least, some scenario better than sole cropping practices. There was no significant soil NPK effect pre-sowing and postharvest. Nutritionally, feed quality of maize parts was significant difference among the intercropping systems that stated in their descending value of cowpea hay, as follows: NDF (T3>T1>T5>T4); ADF (T1>T5>T3>T4) and typical in CP. lignin content (T1>T5>T4>T3), while IVDMD% (T3>T4>T5>T1). NDF content was significantly higher in maize stem and least in grain. Maize husk significantly over dominated in ADF content than stem, leaf and grain in descending order. ADF content was great significant in the entire parts that maize husk has higher than stem which exceeds leaf. Grain was the least in ADF content of all maize parts. Similarly, maize stem was significantly higher in lignin than husk, leaf and grain. LER was 1.45 in the mixtures indicating yield advantage over sole crops. T4 has the potential for enhancing cowpea and maize performances. Favorable seasons for better DM yield and chemical composition of both crops should be researched.

Keywords: Maichew; Forage; Maize-Cowpea Intercropping; Yield; Chemical Composition

Introduction

Background and Justification

Farming systems in most Africa is under serious threat due to increasing population growth and environmental degradation. The difficulty has highlighted the need to take an overall view of land management that is not limited only to livestock & crop production systems but also includes the need to conserve natural resources [1,2]. Currently, arable farming is expanding at the expense of traditional grazing land. This is putting pressure on grazing resources resulting inadequate feed resource for livestock both in terms of quality and quantity [3,4]. Belete [5] also reported that production increases resulted from expanding cultivated area not from increasing yield, despite the fact that the land frontier, especially in the highlands, has shrunk. Under these situations, development of integrated forage-cereal-livestock systems offers method of accommodating & improving crop - livestock production systems [6,7]. Although farmers often appreciate the need for fertilizer inputs, the demand isn’t effective due to high prices, insecure supplies, and in some cases because farmers have a high aversion to the risks associated with food production in marginal agroclimatic &socioeconomic conditions. Fertilizer prices at farm gate are also excessively high due to thin markets, lack of domestic production capacity, poorly developed infrastructure, and inefficient production systems [8].

Statement of the Problem

90% of animal feed supply is expected from natural range. This however, is available in marshy areas, rift-valleys, mountain scarves which are also diminished from time to time because of overstocking, overgrazing, and frequent droughts. Due to ever increasing pressure on cultivated land for food and commercial crops, it may not be possible to increase the area for forage production [9]. Integration gap in livestock-crop interactions created problems facing forage development in Ethiopia acting bottleneck to livestock productivity [10]. Growing of forage legumes intercropping enables to use the small farm land for both crop and feed production. The system offers a potential for increasing fodder without appreciable reduction of grain production.

Objectives of the Study

a) To evaluate effect of maize and cowpea mixtures on the agronomic practice.

b) To determine impact of intercropping on nutritional content of the crop parts.

c) To assess forage production potential of maize and cowpea intercropping on economic returns.

Materials and Methods

Description of the Study Area

The research was conducted in Maichew ATVET farm land, from July 20- December 30, 2011, located at 12° 47’ N latitude 39° 32’ E longitude, 2450m.a.s.l. It has 600-800mm rainfall, 12-24oC temperature, and 80% relative humidity. The hottest months are April-June with average 22.92°C; whereas the coldest months are November- January with 12.47°C on average. The district is situated about 120 km south of Mekelle city, North of Ethiopia. In the highland mixed crop- livestock farming system, maize, wheat, normal barley, 6 row barley (“Abiy-ekli”), Teff, pulses such as dekoko, chickpea, vetch, beans and peas are the main cash crops in the zone. Despite the mountainous terrain which limits availability of cultivable land, the combination of fertile soils, adequate rainfall and suitable temperatures produce good yields which make this zone food sufficient comparatively.

Experimental Design and Treatments

Five treatments (two monocultures and three mixtures of maize & cowpea) were included in the experiment with a proportion; 1C:1M for T4, 1C:2M for T5 and 2C:1M for T3 and sole crops of cowpea (T1) and maize (T2) included as check to compare yields of intercropped mixtures. The experimental design was RCBD with three replications. The treatments included seed proportions as follows 144:0 (100% cowpea), 0:144 (100% maize), 96:48 (67% cowpea: 37% maize), 72:72 (50% cowpea: 50% maize) and 48:96 (33% cowpea: 67% maize). The land was ploughed and ridged then divided into 15 plots (3.6m x5.4m= 19.44 m2 each) and 1m plot spacing, in 18.2m *22m= 400.4m2 leveled total area. Frost damaged the cowpea forage on 26th December 2011 night that Maichew meteorological station recorded -10c, after 10% pod formation and early blooming. Based on the indigenous knowledge practices of the surroundings, the research maize (Katumani/Beletech) termed “Arkib or Fetino” for its fast growing yellowish small sized deemed as reliable in the late on set and early cessation rainfall pattern and Cowpea, the multipurpose legume was supposed to minimize the cost of production for fertilizer under nitrogen-limiting conditions and under water-limiting conditions, so that the requirements for maintenance of high intercrop maize yields can be defined.

Sampling Procedure, Data Collection, and Analysis: Soil sample collected diagonally from the middle 3 rows of the plot for both pre-sowing (surface level during bed preparation) and post harvest (from roots of the crops). Laboratory analysis for soil and plant NPK was conducted using wet chemistry technique while DM and Fiber contents using NIRS. Dry oven used to determine plant DM% and other chemical analysis in 65oC for 24 hours and to analyze soil NPKs in 105oC for 24 hours. Fresh matter yield was estimated from harvesting herbage from 3.6m x5.4m quadrant in the central rows of each plot. The dried composite forage and grain samples from each treatment were milled to pass via a 1mm sieve for targeted analysis. Maize and cowpea forages as well as maize grain quality were determined in terms of percentage: - NPKs, CP, Ash, DM, ADF, NDF, ADL, IVDMD and soil NPK analysis. Yields were assessed based on intercropping indices as measures ratio of individual LERs, Monetary Advantage Index (MAI) an indication of the economic values of grain and stover produced estimation, germination rate and time to reach blooming were considered for quantitative statistics. In each experiment, sowing was done by row method. All other cultural management practices including (watering, thinning and weeding) were kept normal and uniform for all the treatments Table 1.

The collected samples analyzed for DM, CP and ash according to the procedures and NDF, ADF and ADL determined according to the method of Van Soest [11]. For DM yield determination, two middle rows were harvested when the maize component reached dough stage and the harvested biomass was then be separated in to grass and legume components. The fresh weight recorded just after partitioning and the sub samples of each component species forced in dry oven at 65oC for 24 hours to determine the DM content. This percentage DM used to determine herbage yield on per hectare basis. Biological yield advantages and species compatibility of the intercropping were assessed using LER. If LER is greater than one, then intercropping has a yield advantage [12-14]. The chemical analysis of the feed samples was done using the standard methods AOAC. Nitrogen was analyzed using the Kjeldhal procedure and crude protein was determined by multiplying %N by the factor 6.25. NDF and ADF determined by the procedures described by Goering and Van Soest. IVDMD was determined using Tilley and Terry in vitro technique. Soil and plant NPK was determined followed by maize and cowpea plant parts Near-infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy. Samples were dried, ground and sieved.

Statistical Data Analysis

Data analyzed by ANOVA, Correlation manipulated using basic statistics and LSM difference student’s t test of JMP 5 (2002) The statistical model was:

Yij = μ + Bi +Tj + Eij

Where, Yij=observation in block i and treatment j, μ=Overall sample mean, Bi=Effect of block j, Ti= Effect of treatment i, Eij = Error.

Materials and Methods

Germination rate was more than 75% for both crops within a week time and maize started tasseling on 3rd month while cowpea begun blooming on the end of 4th month. In the study plot 400m2 there have been 713 cowpea and 955 maize plants that had 1780 maize ears (1.86 ears/maize plants) of which 937 ears (52.64%) had been fruitful bearing seeds and 5.73% out of the total maize, were also damaged by birds even though closely guarded during early mornings and late evenings. Damaged ears were covered using maize leaf or plastics. In both crops, sole cropping and higher ratio of respective seed outweigh the intercropping due to minimum inter-competition. In cowpea (Table 2) forage yield T1 was highly significant (p<0.05) than other cowpea intercropping systems which were likely to each other. T1 produced more DM% than in intercropping systems. T5 has the lowest cowpea DM, and shortest cowpea plant height, due to reduced cowpea growth. Cowpea DM production in sole cropping increased with increasing cowpea density and produced more DM compared to intercropped planting patterns. This indicated that competition for resources in intercropping reduced cowpea growth and also resulted in a decreased growth rates (Figure 1). The effect of forage integration treatments on maize forage yield was significant (P<0.05), however, there was no significant difference in grain yield among the cropping systems though treatment 5 yielded higher (5.46 ton/ha) and higher 100 maize grains weight (24.98g), followed by treatment 4 (4.38 ton/ha) yield and 21.74g average 100 maize grain weight; treatment 3 (3.05 ton/ha) and 21.84g average 100 maize seeds and the least in yield was actually the sole maize treatment 2 (2.24 ton/ha) as indicated in (Tables 2 & 3).

There were no remarkable differences (P > 0.05) in maize plant height due to the intercropping, rather the maize sole crop outweighed, followed by reducing proportion of the cowpea. Maize leaf number/plant were 99.7% similar (p>0.05) among treatments that there was no use of variation in cropping system, however, T4 formed significantly higher leaf number from other treatments. Maize biomass was higher in the sole crop followed by T5 where the seed ratio outweighed others. T4 and T3 maize biomass was typical also (Figure 1). There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference in maize ear length and grains/cob among the treatments. However, T4 were significantly higher from others, both in maize ear length and grains/cob, indicating that maize ear length determined number of grains/cob in maize plants (Table 2).

Similar to many studies, number of growing days in the highland (2450 m.a.s.l) was supposed to reach in 3 months, but everything delayed to 5 months. The research result agree red with Samuel and Mesfin [15]; Diriba and Lemma [4], who reported that high biomass of maize in sole crop, compared to their respective intercrops has been obtained due to interspecific completion and rust damage of the maize. Maize yield reduction in intercropped compared to T2 could be due to a higher degree of interspecific competition in mixed stands and the absence of interspecific competition in the sole crops similar to the investigation [9]. Results from previous studies indicated that shade effects on growth and yield of legume crops decreased DM yield and increased plant height [15]. Thobatsi [14] has also reported that taller maize cultivars result in lower yield of intercropped cowpeas, compared to shorter cultivars due to the increased shading effects. Contrary to the studies of shade effect on the cowpea, the research enabled to determine maize nursing effect from frost damage on cowpea.

The increase in DM% production of maize in intercropping compared T2 might be attributed to the fact that maize is a more aggressive component crop in the intercropped system. Similar results had been reported by numerous investigators [15] who found that DM production increased when maize is intercropped relative to sole maize. Cowpea DM production in sole cropping increased with increasing cowpea density and produced more DM compared to intercropped planting patterns. This indicated that competition for resources in intercropping reduced cowpea growth and also resulted in a decrease in growth rates. Legume growth suppression by maize in intercropping systems has been reported [16]. Maize-cowpea intercrops reduced density and weed biomass when compared to sole crops. This was similar with the findings of many researches. In biomass, T2 dominated followed by T5 and T4, indicating interspecific competition scenarios in between maize and cowpea crops, which disagree with many investigators. However, maize seeds/cob directly linked with ear length that was shown in T4 similar to [16]. Mean grain yields for maize under intercropping were 51% less and for cowpea 12% less than in the respective sole crops [17]. Furthermore, maize stover yield was 14% lower under intercropping, although the additional legume stover may more than compensate because of its higher nutritive value. T4 was the best combination of component crops in intercrop due to maize seeds per cob, ear length, cowpea plant height and biomass and fair shade and frost effects. This combination of component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops in this study.

Sole cowpea was significantly populated than other intercropping. T3 and T4 were likely to each other, but value wise, T3 was more populated than T4, indicating that with increase cowpea rows, there was an increase in cowpea population, getting freedom to compete alone for access to water, nutrients and sun light. Practically there was great over dominance of maize in three of the T5 replications, that cowpea plants were out of competition. T4 was significantly different from T5, though insignificant (P>0.05) from T3 and T1 which, were likely to each other in cowpea plant height. The same trend was also observed in cowpea nodule number per plant, where T1 was exceptionally different from T5. There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in cowpea biomass among the intercropping systems, however, sole cowpea had scored significantly higher biomass followed by T4 with the least T3 (Figure 1). Cowpea plant root depth among the treatments were almost 81% similar between treatments (p>0.05) not significant but T4 was greatly significant (P>0.05) than T5, T3 and T1 in descending order (Table 2). Intercropping had a consistent deleterious effect on cowpea performance, but any competitive effects were small. Cowpea plant height positively correlated with its biomass and number of cowpea plant/plot with nodule number, that indicated they do affect each other. But there was no correlation in between number of cowpea plants/ plot with plant height and cowpea root depth.

There was no correlation in between number of nodule with cowpea plant height, cowpea biomass and cowpea root depth. Maize plants/plot was almost perfectly positively correlated with maize biomass (0.98) & maize ear number/ plant (0.96) that positively correlated with plant height but no correlation with ear length, grains/cob and grain weight. Maize leaf number was only positively correlated with plant height that indicated directly influenced to each other, no relation with ear length, grains/ cob, ear number/plant, grain weight and biomass. However, leaf number should be correlated with maize biomass, which correlated with plant height. Maize plant height also positively correlated with ear length, biomass and ear number/plant, but not correlated with grain weight and grains/cob indicating no influence. Maize biomass was also perfectly positively correlated with ear number/plant that directly affected. There was weak correlation in between biomass of maize & cowpea that there may not affect each other. Number of cowpea plants/ plot did not affected number of maize plants/plot that do weakly correlated, but negatively affected maize grain weight. Nodules/ cowpea plant was negatively correlated with maize ear length which affected number maize grains/cob.

Thobatsi [14] reported that maize grain yield was significantly correlated to number of ears/plant and to 100 seeds weight. The planting pattern T5 has displayed lower cowpea plants performance in height and population that contradicts with Moriri [9] study who reported the 2rowsM:4rowsC pattern has the lowest cowpea dry matter, and taller cowpea plant height, all of these being attributed to reduce cowpea growth. In agreement with Moriri [9] study T4 pattern was the best combination of component crops in intercrop due to higher dry matter production. This combination of the component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops in the study. Thorne [17] reported maize grain lower (0.5 ton/ha) than the bench marked production of the study area (0.7 ton/ha) and the actual intercropped low input farming trial as reported in (Table 3).

Effects Intercropping on Plant Chemical Composition

The levels of DM, IVDMD, NDF and ADF were higher in maize than in cowpea. However, lignin, CP and ash were higher in cowpea than maize.The interaction impact significantly (P<0.05) affected in cowpea forage composition in many of the criteria such as DM, Ash, NDF, ADF, lignin and IVDMD in different angles. There was significant difference among the intercropping systems that stated in their descending value, as follows: NDF% (T3>T1>T5>T4); ADF % (T1>T5>T3>T4) and typical in CP% as well as lignin content % (T1> T5>T4>T3), while IVDMD% (T3>T4>T5>T1). There was marked (P <0.05) effect of intercropping in cowpea forage DM% that T5 was higher while T1 was the least. Cowpea Ash content was also significant (P < 0.05), and that of T4 has higher value while T3 was the least. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in between maize leaf and husk as well as maize grain and stem in DM% content. However, Maize leaves were significantly higher while maize stem was the least of all. Ash content was significantly (P < 0.05) different with higher value in maize leaf and least in grain which was actually higher in CP% (P < 0.05; 9.86) than leaf (6.57), husk (4.40) and stem (3.64). Interaction significantly (P < 0.01) affected NDF content that maize stem was higher and the least in grain. Maize husk was significantly over dominant in ADF content than stem, leaf and grain with their descending order. There was great significant in ADF content in the entire maize parts that maize husk has higher ADF than stem which exceeds leaf. Grain was the least in ADF content of all the maize parts. In general, low NDF values are desired because NDF increases as forages mature. Similar to the general fact maize stem was significantly (p<0.05, 7.87%) higher in lignin than husk (6.62%), leaf (4.13%) and grain (1.23%). There is significant difference in IVDMD% content from maize grain to leaf, husk and stem, that grain was better digestible and absorbed in body tissues. Grain was the least in ADF; husk was the highest, indicating that it is poor in digestibility.

The chemical composition of the research forage was in the range of Ethiopian forage nutritive value as stated by Duncan [18]. In turn, cowpea also presented CP values similar to those found in the literature. Dahmardeh et al. [19] reported that maximum ADF (31.85%) was recorded by sowing maize alone while increasing the proportion of cowpea seeds to 50% in intercropping with maize, resulted in the lowest ADF (25.89%). Intercropping of cereal and legume can improve forage quality in terms of Ash. There was no difference in Phosphorus and IVDMD composition in maize stover and in maize grain of DM and CP, from Duncan [18] findings, higher ADL (6.2%) than 3.98%.

Intercropping Effects on Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Contents

The soil parameters did not vary significantly (p>0.05) across treatments pre-sowing and post harvest. However, it is worth noting that intercropped plots did not receive fertilizer, and yet available nitrogen and phosphorus content was not significantly different. However, there was slight difference that higher N2 and P available pre-sowing, this indicated that total yield per unit area was improved through intercropping without visible impact on soil nutrient status. Available nitrogen was markedly lower and differences were less evident at the final sampling, probably, due to the increased use of the nutrients by the improved growth of the crops. There was significant Potassium (K) variation (p<0.05) pre-sowing and post harvest ppm. The result in NPK ranged in medium as to recommendations. Available potassium in the soil post harvest was diminished and higher in the maize leaves and husks.

This coincided with Lindquist [20] that intercropping means sowing forage seeds usually legumes in a field where other crops are already growing, that has an advantage of producing additional animal feed from land that is already used, improves the feeding value of the crop stubble and improves soil fertility [21]. The research result coincided with Thorne et al. [17] who stated as stover fraction of the maize plant contains fewer nutrients than the grain. However, the removal of stover as fodder, construction material or fuel still represents a significant additional outflow of nutrients from the plot.

Economic Return of the Forage

Intercropping has improved economic return that T5 (1C:2M) followed by treatment 4 (1C:1M) intercropping were better to perform than treatment 2 (sole maize) and treatment 3 (2C:1M) cropping, be it for minimum competition or to resist frost damage. Cowpea had been crop of the lowlands, but the research trial could be witness that it could be feasible not only for forage value but also for seed production. With this the mono-crop was the least in terms of 100 maize grain weight and grain yield, while treatment 5, 4 and 3 the real intercropping system intervention do better performed in their sequential order. Forage yield was the reverse that mono-crop (50.38 ton/ha) was significantly different followed by T5 (26.46 ton/ha), T4 (20.82 ton/ha) and lastly T3 (15.85 ton/ ha), indicating that higher proportion of maize outweigh, due to the nature of the crop to cover a large canopy area.

A partial budgeting model was applied for economic-evaluation of the biological data. Both crops forage yield and maize grain were valued at farm-gate prices (Table 4). Incremental benefit and incremental cost for each crop treatment was calculated. The resultant benefit cost ratio (BCR) was derived as the ratio of net incremental benefit to incremental cost. It is the absolute marginal rate of return (or loss, if negative) to incremental cost. BCR is the choice criterion for ranking the alternative maizeintercrops against respective control practices. A positive BCR implies that a particular crop treatment is economically superior (yields positive marginal return) to the control treatment or practice, and vice versa. The higher the positive BCR, the more economically superior the crop treatment and vis-a-vis. From a hectare of the planting pattern 257225.60 birr was considered as return. Results indicated that the overall LER was 1.45 in the mixtures indicating a yield advantage over sole crops (Figure 2). Therefore, 45% more land should be used in sole cropping in order to obtain the same yield of intercropping, which indicates the superiority of the intercrops over pure stand in terms of the use of environmental resources for plant growth. LER > 1.0 has been reported in Eskandari, but LER<1 was reported in Thobatsi Table 5.

*Correlation significant level; ns = not significant; ht= height; wt = weight; Cwpea = cowpea; Mgrains = Maize grains

Conclusions and Recommendations

This study obviously suggested the possibility of exploiting short-term forage legume-cereal rotations where farmers could gain the benefits of forage legumes to grain production. If developed in to an intervention that can be implemented, such approach could be of an immense value to the animal and crop enterprises in mixed farming systems of highlands. In conclusion, it can be safely said that intercropping has shown its merit as a viable means of intensifying crop production, under unfertilized conditions and biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (frost) stresses, in the study area. The research disapproved that crop of the lowland; cowpea could perform well in highland, especially, with the global warming, increasing desertification and increasing temperature.

Maize and cowpea competed well with each other for light and nutrients in T4 mixed stand, producing a good total DM yield with moderate protein content. Cowpea deemed crop of the lowlands, but the research trial could be witness that it could be feasible not only for forage value but also for seed production. The research enabled to observe, frost damage versus intercropping that there was minimum impact on T4 of the intercropping for maize acted as nursing crop and provided protection against frost damage of the cowpea.

Frost damage was more severe in the sole cowpea than the intercropped case. On the other hand, the establishment of climbing by this legume in relation to stage of maize development was vital in intercropping providing support. Birds’ damage of the cob was higher in the sole maize for the denser population enabled to hide the birds. Frost cowpea damage was lesser in the T5 and T4 arrangements. The overall performance of the intercropping was better in the T4 arrangement which was the suitable planting pattern and has the potential to increase DM yield of maize production thereby also enhancing crop growth. In cowpea, sole cropping produced more DM than in intercropping systems. From this study it was found that the T4 and T3 arrangements have the potential for enhancing cowpea and maize growth and also reducing weed growth this combination of the component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops. Maize treatment 4 indicated to have better in CP% than other planting patterns.

a) Inorganic fertilizer seemed to be an indispensable component to maximize yield output, from interventions like intercropping.

b) For highest yields, plant the targeted maize in 75 cm rows apart with in-row spacing of 30 cm.

c) Favorable seasons for better grain and forage yields of both crops as well as chemical composition during scarcity of green feeds should be researched.

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Lupine Publishers| Forage Production Potential of Maize - Cowpea Intercropping in Maichew - Southern Tigray, Ethiopia

Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

Needless to mention the ever increasing pressure on cultivated land for food & commercial crops, diminishing the area for forage production. RCBD five treatments with three replications experiment compared maize grown as sole crop with maizecowpea intercropped to assess agronomic, nutritional and economic returns of forage production. Average plant performance ranged 122.85-174.19cm maize plant height; 20.7-26.4cm ear length, & number of leaves/maize plant was 9.13-10.52. The effect of intercropping treatments on maize forage yield was significant (P<.05), however, there was no significant difference in grain yield among the cropping systems though T5 yielded higher and higher 100 maize grains weight followed by T4 yield and 21.74g average 100 maize grain weight; T3 (3.05ton/ha) and 21.84g average 100 maize seeds and the least in yield was actually the sole maize T2 (2.24ton/ha), confirming that intercropping has at least, some scenario better than sole cropping practices. There was no significant soil NPK effect pre-sowing and postharvest.

Nutritionally, feed quality of maize parts was significant difference among the intercropping systems that stated in their descending value of cowpea hay, as follows: NDF (T3>T1>T5>T4); ADF (T1>T5>T3>T4) and typical in CP. lignin content (T1>T5>T4>T3), while IVDMD% (T3>T4>T5>T1). NDF content was significantly higher in maize stem and least in grain. Maize husk significantly over dominated in ADF content than stem, leaf and grain in descending order. ADF content was great significant in the entire parts that maize husk has higher than stem which exceeds leaf. Grain was the least in ADF content of all maize parts. Similarly, maize stem was significantly higher in lignin than husk, leaf and grain. LER was 1.45 in the mixtures indicating yield advantage over sole crops. T4 has the potential for enhancing cowpea and maize performances. Favourable seasons for better DM yield and chemical composition of both crops should be researched.

Keywords: Maichew, Forage, Maize-Cowpea Intercropping, Yield, Chemical composition

Abbrevations: BCR: Benefit Cost Ratio, MAI: Monetary Advantage Index

Introduction

Background and Justification

Farming systems in most Africa is under serious threat due to increasing population growth and environmental degradation. The difficulty has highlighted the need to take an overall view of land management that is not limited only to livestock & crop production systems but also includes the need to conserve natural resources. Currently, arable farming is expanding at the expense of traditional grazing land. This is putting pressure on grazing resources resulting inadequate feed resource for livestock both in terms of quality and quantity [1]. Belete [2] also reported that production increases resulted from expanding cultivated area not from increasing yield, despite the fact that the land frontier, especially in the highlands, has shrunk. Under these situations, development of integrated forage-cereal-livestock systems offers method of accommodating & improving crop - livestock production systems [3]. Although farmers often appreciate the need for fertilizer inputs, the demand isn’t effective due to high prices, insecure supplies, and in some cases because farmers have a high aversion to the risks associated with food production in marginal agroclimatic &socioeconomic conditions. Fertilizer prices at farm gate are also excessively high due to thin markets, lack of domestic production capacity, poorly developed infrastructure, and inefficient production systems [4].

Statement of the Problem

90% of animal feed supply is expected from natural range. This however, is available in marshy areas, rift-valleys, mountain scarves which are also diminished from time to time because of overstocking, overgrazing, and frequent droughts. Due to ever increasing pressure on cultivated land for food and commercial crops, it may not be possible to increase the area for forage production [5]. Integration gap in livestock-crop interactions created problems facing forage development in Ethiopia acting bottleneck to livestock productivity [6]. Growing of forage legumes intercropping enables to use the small farm land for both crop and feed production. The system offers a potential for increasing fodder without appreciable reduction of grain production.

Objectives of the Study

1. To evaluate effect of maize and cowpea mixtures on the agronomic practice,

2. To determine impact of intercropping on nutritional content of the crop parts, and

3. To assess forage production potential of maize and cowpea intercropping on economic returns

Materials and Methods

Description of the Study Area

The research was conducted in Maichew ATVET farm land, from July 20- December 30, 2011, located at 12°47’ N latitude 39°32’ E longitude, 2450m.a.s.l. It has 600-800mm rainfall, 12- 24oC temperature, and 80% relative humidity. The hottest months are April-June with average 22.92°C; whereas the coldest months are November- January with 12.47°C on average. The district is situated about 120km south of Mekelle city, North of Ethiopia. In the highland mixed crop livestock farming system, maize, and wheat, normal barley, 6 row barley (“Abiy-ekli”), Teff, pulses such as dekoko, chickpea, vetch, beans and peas are the main cash crops in the zone. Despite the mountainous terrain which limits availability of cultivable land, the combination of fertile soils, adequate rainfall and suitable temperatures produce good yields which make this zone food sufficient comparatively.

Experimental Design and Treatments

Five treatments (two monocultures and three mixtures of maize & cowpea) were included in the experiment with a proportion; 1C:1M for T4, 1C:2M for T5 and 2C:1M for T3 and sole crops of cowpea (T1) and maize (T2) included as check to compare yields of intercropped mixtures. The experimental design was RCBD with three replications. The treatments included seed proportions as follows 144:0 (100% cowpea), 0:144 (100% maize), 96:48 (67% cowpea: 37% maize), 72:72 (50% cowpea: 50% maize) and 48:96 (33% cowpea: 67% maize). The land was ploughed and ridged then divided into 15 plots (3.6m x5.4m= 19.44m2 each) and 1m plot spacing, in 18.2m *22m= 400.4m2 leveled total area. Frost damaged the cowpea forage on 26th December 2011 night that Maichew meteorological station recorded -10c, after 10% pod formation and early blooming. Based on the indigenous knowledge practices of the surroundings, the research maize (Katumani/Beletech) termed “Arkib or Fetino” for its fast growing yellowish small sized deemed as reliable in the late on set and early cessation rainfall pattern and Cowpea, the multipurpose legume was supposed to minimize the cost of production for fertilizer under nitrogen-limiting conditions and under water-limiting conditions, so that the requirements for maintenance of high intercrop maize yields can be defined.

Sampling Procedure, Data Collection, and Analysis

Soil sample collected diagonally from the middle 3 rows of the plot for both pre-sowing (surface level during bed preparation) and post harvest (from roots of the crops). Laboratory analysis for soil and plant NPK was conducted using wet chemistry technique while DM and Fiber contents using NIRS. Dry oven used to determine plant DM% and other chemical analysis in 65oC for 24 hours and to analyze soil NPKs in 105oC for 24 hours. Fresh matter yield was estimated from harvesting herbage from 3.6m x5.4m quadrant in the central rows of each plot. The dried composite forage and grain samples from each treatment were milled to pass via a 1mm sieve for targeted analysis. Maize and cowpea forages as well as maize grain quality were determined in terms of percentage: - NPKs, CP, Ash, DM, ADF, NDF, ADL, IVDMD and soil NPK analysis. Yields were assessed based on intercropping indices as measures ratio of individual LERs, Monetary Advantage Index (MAI) an indication of the economic values of grain and stover produced estimation, germination rate and time to reach blooming were considered for quantitative statistics. In each experiment, sowing was done by row method. All other cultural management practices including (watering, thinning and weeding) were kept normal and uniform for all the treatments.

The collected samples analyzed for DM, CP and ash according to the procedures and NDF, ADF and ADL determined according to the method of Van Soest, et al. [7]. For DM yield determination, two middle rows were harvested when the maize component reached dough stage and the harvested biomass was then be separated in to grass and legume components. The fresh weight recorded just after partitioning and the sub samples of each component species forced in dry oven at 65oC for 24 hours to determine the DM content. This percentage DM used to determine herbage yield on per hectare basis. Biological yield advantages and species compatibility of the intercropping were assessed using LER. If LER is greater than one, then intercropping has a yield advantage [8,9]. The chemical analysis of the feed samples was done using the standard methods AOAC. Nitrogen was analyzed using the Kjeldhal procedure and crude protein was determined by multiplying %N by the factor 6.25. NDF and ADF determined by the procedures described by Goering and Van Soest [7]. IVDMD was determined using Tilley and Terry in vitro technique. Soil and plant NPK was determined followed by maize and cowpea plant parts Near-infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy. Samples were dried, ground and sieved (Adesogan 2000).

Statistical Data Analyses

Data analyzed by ANOVA, Correlation manipulated using basic statistics and LSM difference student’s t test of JMP 5 (2002). The statistical model was:- Yij=μ + Bi + Tj+ Eij,

Where, Yij=observation in block i and treatment j, μ=Overall sample mean, Bi=Effect of block j,

Ti= Effect of treatment i, Eij = Error.

Results and Discussion

Germination rate was more than 75% for both crops within a week time and maize started tasseling on 3rd month while cowpea begun blooming on the end of 4th month. In the study plot 400m2 there have been 713 cowpea and 955 maize plants that had 1780 maize ears (1.86 ears/maize plant) of which 937 ears (52.64%) had been fruitful bearing seeds and 5.73% out of the total maize, were also damaged by birds even though closely guarded during early mornings and late evenings. Damaged ears were covered using maize leaf or plastics. In both crops, sole cropping and higher ratio of respective seed outweigh the intercropping due to minimum inter-competition. In cowpea (Tables 1 & 2) forage yield T1 was highly significant (p<.05) than other cowpea intercropping systems which were likely to each other. T1 produced more DM% than in intercropping systems. T5 has the lowest cowpea DM, and shortest cowpea plant height, due to reduced cowpea growth. Cowpea DM production in sole cropping increased with increasing cowpea density and produced more DM compared to intercropped planting patterns. This indicated that competition for resources in intercropping reduced cowpea growth and also resulted in a decreased growth rates (Figure 1). The effect of forage integration treatments on maize forage yield was significant (P<.05), however, there was no significant difference in grain yield among the cropping systems though treatment 5 yielded higher (5.46 ton/ha) and higher 100 maize grains weight (24.98g), followed by treatment 4 (4.38 ton/ha) yield and 21.74g average 100 maize grain weight; treatment 3 (3.05 ton/ha) and 21.84g average 100 maize seeds and the least in yield was actually the sole maize treatment 2 (2.24 ton/ha).as indicated in (Tables 2 & 3).

There were no remarkable differences (P > 0.05) in maize plant height due to the intercropping, rather the maize sole crop outweighed, followed by reducing proportion of the cowpea. Maize leaf number/plant were 99.7% similar (p>0.05) among treatments that there was no use of variation in cropping system, however, T4 formed significantly higher leaf number from other treatments. Maize biomass was higher in the sole crop followed by T5 where the seed ratio outweighed others. T4 and T3 maize biomass was typical also (Figure 1). There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference in maize ear length and grains/cob among the treatments. However, T4 were significantly higher from others, both in maize ear length and grains/cob, indicating that maize ear length determined number of grains/cob in maize plants (Table 2).

Similar to many studies, number of growing days in the highland (2450m.a.s.l) was supposed to reach in 3 months, but everything delayed to 5 months. The research result agreed with Samuel and Mesfin [10]; Diriba and Lemma [1], who reported that high biomass of maize in sole crop, compared to their respective intercrops has been obtained due to interspecific completion and rust damage of the maize. Maize yield reduction in intercropped compared to T2 could be due to a higher degree of interspecific competition in mixed stands and the absence of interspecific competition in the sole crops similar to the investigation [5]. Results from previous studies indicated that shade effects on growth and yield of legume crops decreased DM yield and increased plant height [10]. Thobatsi [9] has also reported that taller maize cultivars result in lower yield of intercropped cowpeas, compared to shorter cultivars due to the increased shading effects. Contrary to the studies of shade effect on the cowpea, the research enabled to determine maize nursing effect from frost damage on cowpea (Table 1).

The increase in DM% production of maize in intercropping compared T2 might be attributed to the fact that maize is a more aggressive component crop in the intercropped system. Similar results had been reported by numerous investigators [10] who found that DM production increased when maize is intercropped relative to sole maize. Cowpea DM production in sole cropping increased with increasing cowpea density and produced more DM compared to intercropped planting patterns. This indicated that competition for resources in intercropping reduced cowpea growth and also resulted in a decrease in growth rates. Legume growth suppression by maize in intercropping systems has been reported (Moririt et al. 2010). Maize-cowpea intercrops reduced density and weed biomass when compared to sole crops. This was similar with the findings of many researches [1].

In biomass, T2 dominated followed by T5 and T4, indicating interspecific competition scenarios in between maize and cowpea crops, which disagree with many investigators. However, maize seeds/cob directly linked with ear length that was shown in T4 similar to Moriri, et al. [11]. Mean grain yields for maize under intercropping were 51% less and for cowpea 12% less than in the respective sole crops Thorne et al. [12]. Furthermore, maize stover yield was 14% lower under intercropping, although the additional legume stover may more than compensate because of its higher nutritive value. T4 was the best combination of component crops in intercrop due to maize seeds per cob, ear length, cowpea plant height and biomass and fair shade and frost effects. This combination of component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops in this study.

Sole cowpea was significantly populated than other intercropping. T3 and T4 were likely to each other, but value wise, T3 was more populated than T4, indicating that with increase cowpea rows, there was an increase in cowpea population, getting freedom to compete alone for access to water, nutrients and sun light. Practically there was great over dominance of maize in three of the T5 replications, that cowpea plants were out of competition. T4 was significantly different from T5, though insignificant (P > 0.05) from T3 and T1 which, were likely to each other in cowpea plant height. The same trend was also observed in cowpea nodule number per plant, where T1 was exceptionally different from T5.

There was no significant (P > 0.05) difference in cowpea biomass among the intercropping systems, however, sole cowpea had scored significantly higher biomass followed by T4 with the least T3 (Figure 1). Cowpea plant root depth among the treatments were almost 81% similar between treatments (p>0.05) not significant but T4 was greatly significant (P > 0.05) than T5, T3 and T1 in descending order (Table 2). Intercropping had a consistent deleterious effect on cowpea performance, but any competitive effects were small. Cowpea plant height positively correlated with its biomass and number of cowpea plant/plot with nodule number, that indicated they do affect each other. But there was no correlation in between number of cowpea plants/plot with plant height and cowpea root depth. There was no correlation in between number of nodule with cowpea plant height, cowpea biomass and cowpea root depth.

Maize plants/plot was almost perfectly positively correlated with maize biomass (0.98) & maize ear number/ plant (0.96) that positively correlated with plant height but no correlation with ear length, grains/cob and grain weight. Maize leaf number was only positively correlated with plant height that indicated directly influenced to each other, no relation with ear length, grains/ cob, ear number/plant, grain weight and biomass. However, leaf number should be correlated with maize biomass, which correlated with plant height. Maize plant height also positively correlated with ear length, biomass and ear number/plant, but not correlated with grain weight and grains/cob indicating no influence. Maize biomass was also perfectly positively correlated with ear number/plant that directly affected. There was weak correlation in between biomass of maize & cowpea that there may not affect each other. Number of cowpea plants/ plot did not affected number of maize plants/ plot that do weakly correlated, but negatively affected maize grain weight. Nodules/ cowpea plant was negatively correlated with maize ear length which affected number maize grains/cob.

Thobatsi [9] reported that maize grain yield was significantly correlated to number of ears/plant and to 100 seeds weight. The planting pattern T5 has displayed lower cowpea plants performance in height and population that contradicts with Moriri, et al. [11] study who reported the 2rows M:4rows C pattern has the lowest cowpea dry matter, and taller cowpea plant height, all of these being attributed to reduce cowpea growth. In agreement with Moriri, et al. [11] study T4 pattern was the best combination of component crops in intercrop due to higher dry matter production. This combination of the component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops in the study. Thorne, et al. [12] reported maize grain lower (0.5ton/ha) than the bench marked production of the study area (0.7 ton/ha) and the actual intercropped low input farming trial as reported in (Table 3).

Indicate for the control sole cowpea (T1) and T2 for sole maize and hence there will no data for the alternate crop.

a,b,c, letters connected by different alphabet were significant difference ( within the same row);

Ns = not significant; SEM = Standard error mean; 1 ton= 1000Kg; 1hectar =10000m2

Effects Intercropping on Plant Chemical Composition

The levels of DM, IVDMD, NDF and ADF were higher in maize than in cowpea. However, lignin, CP and ash were higher in cowpea than maize.The interaction impact significantly (P<.05) affected in cowpea forage composition in many of the criteria such as DM, Ash, NDF, ADF, lignin and IVDMD in different angles. There was significant difference among the intercropping systems that stated in their descending value, as follows: NDF% (T3>T1>T5>T4); ADF % (T1>T5>T3>T4) and typical in CP% as well as lignin content % (T1> T5>T4>T3), while IVDMD% (T3>T4>T5>T1). There was marked (P <.05) effect of intercropping in cowpea forage DM% that T5 was higher while T1 was the least.

Cowpea Ash content was also significant (P < 0.05), and that of T4 has higher value while T3 was the least. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in between maize leaf and husk as well as maize grain and stem in DM% content. However, Maize leaves were significantly higher while maize stem was the least of all. Ash content was significantly (P < 0.05) different with higher value in maize leaf and least in grain which was actually higher in CP% (P < 0.05; 9.86) than leaf (6.57), husk (4.40) and stem (3.64). Interaction significantly (P < 0.01) affected NDF content that maize stem was higher and the least in grain. Maize husk was significantly over dominant in ADF content than stem, leaf and grain with their descending order. There was great significant in ADF content in the entire maize parts that maize husk has higher ADF than stem which exceeds leaf. Grain was the least in ADF content of all the maize parts. In general, low NDF values are desired because NDF increases as forages mature. Similar to the general fact maize stem was significantly (p<.05, 7.87%) higher in lignin than husk (6.62%), leaf (4.13%) and grain (1.23%). There is significant difference in IVDMD% content from maize grain to leaf, husk and stem, that grain was better digestible and absorbed in body tissues. Grain was the least in ADF; husk was the highest, indicating that it is poor in digestibility

The chemical composition of the research forage was in the range of Ethiopian forage nutritive value as stated by Duncan [13]. In turn, cowpea also presented CP values similar to those found in the literature. Dahmardeh [14] reported that maximum ADF (31.85%) was recorded by sowing maize alone while increasing the proportion of cowpea seeds to 50% in intercropping with maize, resulted in the lowest ADF (25.89%). Intercropping of cereal and legume can improve forage quality in terms of Ash. There was no difference in Phosphorus and IVDMD composition in maize stover and in maize grain of DM and CP, from Duncan [13] findings, higher ADL (6.2%) than 3.98% (Table 4).

Intercropping Effects on Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Contents

The soil parameters did not vary significantly (p>0.05) across treatments pre-sowing and post harvest. However, it is worth noting that intercropped plots did not receive fertilizer, and yet available nitrogen and phosphorus content was not significantly different. However, there was slight difference that higher N2 and P available pre-sowing, this indicated that total yield per unit area was improved through intercropping without visible impact on soil nutrient status. Available nitrogen was markedly lower and differences were less evident at the final sampling, probably, due to the increased use of the nutrients by the improved growth of the crops. There was significant Potassium (K) variation (p<.05) presowing and post harvest ppm. The result in NPK ranged in medium as to recommendations. Available potassium in the soil post harvest was diminished and higher in the maize leaves and husks.

This coincided with Lindqvist [15] that intercropping means sowing forage seeds usually legumes in a field where other crops are already growing, that has an advantage of producing additional animal feed from land that is already used, improves the feeding value of the crop stubble and improves soil fertility. The research result coincided with Thorne, et al. [12] who stated as stover fraction of the maize plant contains fewer nutrients than the grain. However, the removal of stover as fodder, construction material or fuel still represents a significant additional outflow of nutrients from the plot.

Economic Return of the Forage

Intercropping has improved economic return that T5 (1C:2M) followed by treatment 4 (1C:1M) intercropping were better to perform than treatment 2 (sole maize) and treatment 3 (2C:1M) cropping, be it for minimum competition or to resist frost damage. Cowpea had been crop of the lowlands, but the research trial could be witness that it could be feasible not only for forage value but also for seed production. With this the mono-crop was the least in terms of 100 maize grain weight and grain yield, while treatment 5, 4 and 3 the real intercropping system intervention do better performed in their sequential order. Forage yield was the reverse that mono-crop (50.38 ton/ha) was significantly different followed by T5 (26.46 ton/ha), T4 (20.82 ton/ha) and lastly T3 (15.85 ton/ ha), indicating that higher proportion of maize outweigh, due to the nature of the crop to cover a large canopy area.

A partial budgeting model was applied for economic-evaluation of the biological data. Both crops forage yield and maize grain were valued at farm-gate prices (Table 5). Incremental benefit and incremental cost for each crop treatment was calculated. The resultant benefit cost ratio (BCR) was derived as the ratio of net incremental benefit to incremental cost. It is the absolute marginal rate of return (or loss, if negative) to incremental cost. BCR is the choice criterion for ranking the alternative maize-intercrops against respective control practices. A positive BCR implies that a particular crop treatment is economically superior (yields positive marginal return) to the control treatment or practice, and vice versa. The higher the positive BCR, the more economically superior the crop treatment and vis-a-vis. From a hectare of the planting pattern 257225.60 birr was considered as return (Table 5).

Biological Competition (Potential) Functions

SPI= (MS / CS x CI) + MI=MI= 3.39 ton/ha, where, CS x CI=0, since cowpea was perished. The Monetary Advantage Index (MAI) which gives an indication of the economic advantage of the intercropping system was calculated according to Ghosh [8] as follows:

MAI=257225.60(1.45-1)/1.45=79828.63 Ethiopian Birr

Economic values of grain and stover produced was estimated based on the average prevailing prices during the time period of the year from 3 main markets in the surroundings. Results indicated that the overall LER was 1.45 in the mixtures indicating a yield advantage over sole crops (Figure 2). Therefore, 45% more land should be used in sole cropping in order to obtain the same yield of intercropping, which indicates the superiority of the intercrops over pure stand in terms of the use of environmental resources for plant growth. LER > 1.0 has been reported in Eskandari [5], but LER<1 was reported in Thobatsi [9].

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study obviously suggested the possibility of exploiting short-term forage legume-cereal rotations where farmers could gain the benefits of forage legumes to grain production. If developed in to an intervention that can be implemented, such approach could be of an immense value to the animal and crop enterprises in mixed farming systems of highlands. In conclusion, it can be safely said that intercropping has shown its merit as a viable means of intensifying crop production, under unfertilized conditions and biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (frost) stresses, in the study area. The research disapproved that crop of the lowland; cowpea could perform well in highland, especially, with the global warming, increasing desertification and increasing temperature.

Maize and cowpea competed well with each other for light and nutrients in T4 mixed stand, producing a good total DM yield with moderate protein content. Cowpea deemed crop of the lowlands, but the research trial could be witness that it could be feasible not only for forage value but also for seed production. The research enabled to observe, frost damage versus intercropping that there was minimum impact on T4 of the intercropping for maize acted as nursing crop and provided protection against frost damage of the cowpea. Frost damage was more severe in the sole cowpea than the intercropped case. On the other hand, the establishment of climbing by this legume in relation to stage of maize development was vital in intercropping providing support [16].

Birds’ damage of the cob was higher in the sole maize for the denser population enabled to hide the birds. Frost cowpea damage was lesser in the T5 and T4 arrangements. The overall performance of the intercropping was better in the T4 arrangement which was the suitable planting pattern and has the potential to increase DM yield of maize production thereby also enhancing crop growth. In cowpea, sole cropping produced more DM than in intercropping systems [17-20]. From this study it was found that the T4 and T3 arrangements have the potential for enhancing cowpea and maize growth and also reducing weed growth this combination of the component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops. Maize treatment 4 indicated to have better in CP% than other planting patterns [21].

1. Inorganic fertilizer seemed to be an indispensable component to maximize yield output, from interventions like intercropping

2. For highest yields, plant the targeted maize in 75 cm rows apart with in-row spacing of 30cm,

3. Favourable seasons for better grain and forage yields of both crops as well as chemical composition during scarcity of green feeds should be researched

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